8. Meanings of
empathy:
Batson, Ahmad, Lishmer, & Tsang, 2002; Hoffman, 2000; Keen, 2007; Preston & de Waal, 2002.
9. James on sympathy and fox terriers: James, 1977.
10. Senses of empathy: Batson et al., 2002; Hoffman, 2000; Keen, 2007; Preston & de Waal, 2002.
11. Empathy as mind-reading: Baron-Cohen, 1995.
12. Dissociability of reading thoughts and emotions: Blair & Perschardt, 2002.
13. Psychopaths read but don’t feel emotions: Hare, 1993; Mealey & Kinner, 2002.
14. Empathy versus distress at others’ suffering: Batson et al., 2002.
15. Emotional contagion: Preston & de Waal, 2002.
16. Sympathy not the same as contagion: Bandura, 2002.
17. Discovery of mirror neurons: di Pellegrino, Fadiga, Fogassi, Gallese, & Rizzolatti, 1992.
18. Possible mirror neurons in humans: Iacoboni et al., 1999.
19. Mirror mania: Iacoboni, 2008; J. Lehrer, “Built to be fans,”
Seed
, Feb. 10, 2006, pp. 119–20; C. Buckley, “Why our hero leapt onto the tracks and we might not,”
New York Times
, Jan. 7, 2007; S. Vedantam, “How brain’s ‘mirrors’ aid our social understanding,”
Washington Post
, Sept. 25, 2006.
20. Mirror neurons as DNA: Ramachandran, 2000.
21. Nasty macaques: McCullough, 2008, p. 125.
22. Empathy in the brain: Lamm, Batson, & Decety, 2007; Moll, de Oliveira-Souza, & Eslinger, 2003; Moll, Zahn, de Oliveira-Souza, Krueger, & Grafman, 2005.
23. Skepticism about mirror neurons: Csibra, 2008; Alison Gopnik, 2007; Hickok, 2009; Hurford, 2004; Jacob & Jeannerod, 2005.
24. Overlap in insula: Singer et al., 2006; Wicker et al., 2003.
25. No overlap in insula when feeling revenge: Singer et al., 2006.
26. Counterempathy in competition: Lanzetta & Englis, 1989.
27. Empathy in the brain: Lamm et al., 2007.
28. Atlas of empathy: Damasio, 1994; Lamm et al., 2007; Moll et al., 2003; Moll et al., 2005; Raine, 2008.
29. Oxytocin: Pfaff, 2007.
30. Maternal care as precursor to sympathy: Batson et al., 2002; Batson, Lishner, Cook, & Sawyer, 2005.
31. Oxytocin induces trust: Kosfeld et al., 2005; Zak, Stanton, Ahmadi, & Brosnan, 2007.
32. Cuteness: Lorenz, 1950/1971.
33. Babies exploit cuteness response: Hrdy, 1999.
34. Evolution of Mickey Mouse: Gould, 1980.
35. Dangerous Mick: B. Barnes, “After Mickey’s makeover, less Mr. Nice Guy,”
New York Times
, Nov. 4, 2009.
36. Baby-faced litigants: Zebrowitz & McDonald, 1991.
37. Ugly children punished more: Berkowitz & Frodi, 1979.
38. Unattractive adults judged more harshly: Etcoff, 1999.
39. Forgiveness, sympathy, guilt: Baumeister et al., 1994; Hoffman, 2000; McCullough, 2008; McCullough et al., 2010.
40. Communal versus exchange relationships: Baumeister et al., 1994; Clark, Mills, & Powell, 1986; Fiske, 1991; Fiske, 1992, 2004a.
41. Taboos in communal relationships: Fiske & Tetlock, 1997; McGraw & Tetlock, 2005.
42. Modicum of sympathy to strangers as default: Axelrod, 1984/2006; Baumeister et al., 1994; Trivers, 1971.
43. Toddlers aid and comfort people in distress: Warneken & Tomasello, 2007; Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, Wagner, & Chapman, 1992.
44. Sympathy for those in need: Batson et al., 2005b.
45. Similarity matters: Preston & de Waal, 2002, p. 16; Batson, Turk, Shaw, & Klein, 1995c.
46. Shared traits and relief from shock: Krebs, 1975.
47. Empathy-altruism hypothesis: Batson & Ahmad, 2001; Batson et al., 2002; Batson, Ahmad, & Stocks, 2005a; Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, & Birch, 1981; Batson et al., 1988; Krebs, 1975.
48. Psychological definition of altruism: Batson et al., 2002; Batson et al., 1981; Batson et al., 1988.
49. Evolutionary definition of altruism: Dawkins, 1976/1989; Hamilton, 1963; Maynard Smith, 1982.
50. Confusions about altruism: Pinker, 1997, chaps. 1, 6; Pinker, 2006.
51. Empathy-altruism hypotheses: Batson & Ahmad, 2001; Batson et al., 2002; Batson et al., 2005a; Batson et al., 1981; Batson et al., 1988.
52. Batson’s empathy-altruism research: Batson et al., 2002; Batson et al., 2005a.
53. Similarity, empathy, and ease of escape: Batson et al., 1981.
54. Empathy and social acceptability: Batson et al., 1988.
55. Empathy and a one-shot Prisoner’s Dilemma: Batson & Moran, 1999.
56. Empathy and an iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma: Batson & Ahmad, 2001.
57. Empathy from superordinate goals, and in conflict resolution workshops: Batson et al., 2005a, pp. 367–68; Stephan & Finlay, 1999.
58. Sympathy toward groups via perspective-taking: Batson et al., 1997.
59. Taking a victim’s perspective induces altruism: Batson et al., 1988.
60. Taking a victim’s perspective induces altruism toward group: Batson et al., 1997.
61. Sympathy for convicted murderers: Batson et al., 1997.
62. George Eliot on empathy through fiction: From “The natural history of German life,” quoted in Keen, 2007, p. 54.
63. Fiction as an empathy expander: Hunt, 2007; Mar & Oatley, 2008; Mar et al., 2006; Nussbaum, 1997, 2006.
64. Empathizers read fiction: Mar et al., 2006.
65. Confusing fact with fiction: Strange, 2002.
66. Empathy for a fictitious character and his group: Batson, Chang, Orr, & Rowland, 2008.
67. Fiction as a moral laboratory: Hakemulder, 2000.
68. The dark side of empathy: Batson et al., 2005a; Batson et al., 1995a; Batson, Klein, Highberger, & Shaw, 1995b; Prinz, in press.
69. Empathy subverts fairness: Batson et al., 1995b.
70. Empathy and public goods: Batson et al., 1995a.
71. Ephemeral benefits from empathy: Batson et al., 2005a, p. 373.
72. Utopia versus human nature: Pinker, 2002.
73. Burnout and fatigue from excess empathy: Batson et al., 2005a.
74. Lebanon war as a lapse of self-control: Mueller & Lustick, 2008.
75. The logic of self-control: Ainslie, 2001; Daly & Wilson, 2000; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995; Schelling, 1978, 1984, 2006.
76. Ancestral versus modern discounting rates: Daly & Wilson, 1983, 2000, 2005; Wilson & Daly, 1997.
77. Myopic retirement planning: Akerlof, 1984; Frank, 1988.
78. Libertarian paternalism: Thaler & Sunstein, 2008.
79. Myopic discounting: Ainslie, 2001; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995.
80. Hyperbolic discounting: Ainslie, 2001; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995.
81. Hyperbolic discounting as composite of two mechanisms: Pinker, 1997, p. 396; Laibson, 1997.
82. Two selves: Schelling, 1984, p. 58.
83. Hot and cool brain systems: Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999.
84. Limbic grasshopper and frontal lobe ant: McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, & Cohen, 2004.
85. Frontal lobes: Fuster, 2008.
86. Frontal lobes in temporal discounting: Shamosh et al., 2008.
87. Gage and his modern counterparts: Anderson et al., 1999; Damasio, 1994; Macmillan, 2000; Raine, 2008; Raine et al., 2000; Scarpa & Raine, 2007.
88. Cortical expansion during evolution: Hill et al., 2010.
89. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in cost-benefit analyses: Greene et al., 2001; McClure et al., 2004.
90. Frontal pole: Gilbert et al., 2006; Koechlin & Hyafil, 2007; L. Helmuth, “Brain model puts most sophisticated regions front and center,”
Science
,
302,
p. 1133.
91. Limbic and prefrontal responses in batterers: Lee, Chan, & Raine, 2008.
92. Importance of intelligence: Gottfredson, 1997a, 1997b; Neisser et al., 1996.
93. Marshmallow test: Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Mischel et al., in press.
94. Shallow discounting and life outcomes: Chabris et al., 2008; Duckworth & Seligman, 2005; Kirby, Winston, & Santiesteban, 2005.
95. Self-reports on self-control: Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004.
96. Benefits of self-control: Tangney et al., 2004.
97. Crime and self-control: Gottfredson, 2007; Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985.
98. Delay of gratification and aggression: Rodriguez, Mischel, & Shoda, 1989.
99. Teacher ratings of impulsiveness and aggressiveness: Dewall et al., 2007; Tangney et al., 2004.
100. Longitudinal study of temperament: Caspi, 2000. See also Beaver, DeLisi, Vaughn, & Wright, 2008.
101. Violent and nonviolent crimes correlated in New Zealand sample: Caspi et al., 2002.
102. Maturation of frontal lobes: Fuster, 2008, pp. 17–19.
103. Delay discounting doesn’t correlate with juvenile delinquency: Wilson & Daly, 2006.
104. Sensation-seeking peaks at eighteen: Romer, Duckworth, Sznitman, & Park, 2010.
105. Testosterone: Archer, 2006b.
106. Pushes and pulls in adolescent brains: Romer et al., 2010.
107. All psychological traits are heritable: Bouchard & McGue, 2003; Harris, 1998/2008; McCrae et al., 2000; Pinker, 2002; Plomin, DeFries, McClearn, & McGuffin, 2008; Turkheimer, 2000.
108. Self-control correlated with intelligence: Burks, Carpenter, Goette, & Rustichini, 2009; Shamosh & Gray, 2008. Self-control and intelligence in the frontal lobes: Shamosh et al., 2008.
109. Intelligence and committing crimes: Herrnstein & Murray, 1994; Neisser et al., 1996. Intelligence and getting murdered: Batty, Deary, Tengstrom, & Rasmussen, 2008.
110. Heritability of ADHD and links to crime: Beaver et al., 2008; Wright & Beaver, 2005.
111. Force dynamics metaphor and self-control: Talmy, 2000; Pinker, 2007b, chap. 4.
112. Fatiguing self-control: Baumeister et al., 1998; quote from p. 1254.
113. Ego depletion studies: Baumeister et al., 1998; Baumeister, Gailliot, Dewall, & Oaten, 2006; Dewall et al., 2007; Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007; Gailliot et al., 2007; Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010.
114. Self-control masks individual differences: Baumeister et al., 2006.
115. Self-control and male sexuality: Gailliot & Baumeister, 2007.
116. Ego depletion and violence: Dewall et al., 2007.
117. Heritability of height: Weedon & Frayling, 2008.
118. Odyssean self-control: Schelling, 1984, 2006.
119. Self-control strategies in children: Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999.
120. Discounting rate as an internal variable: Daly & Wilson, 2000, 2005; Wilson & Daly, 1997, 2006.
121. Self-control and glucose: Gailliot et al., 2007.
122. Alcohol and violence: Baumeister, 1997; Bushman, 1997. Nutritional supplements in prisons: J. Bohannon, “The theory? Diet causes violence. The lab? Prison,”
Science
,
325,
Sept. 25, 2009.
123. Exercising the will: Baumeister et al., 2006.
124. Fashions in self-control and dignity: Eisner, 2008; Wiener, 2004; Wouters, 2007.
125. Children’s interest rates: Clark, 2007a, p. 171.
126. Variation across cultures: Hofstede & Hofstede, 2010.
127. Long-term Orientation and homicide: The correlation between Long-Term Orientation and homicide rates across the 95 countries for which data are available is −0.325. The correlation between Indulgence and homicide is 0.25. Both are statistically significant. Long-Term Orientation and Indulgence scores are taken from
http://www.geerthofstede.nl/research-vsm/dimension-data-matrix.aspx
. Homicide data are the high estimates taken from
International homicide statistics
figures, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2009.
128. Lactose tolerance in adulthood: Tishkoff et al., 2006.
129. Yanomamö killers: Chagnon, 1988; Chagnon, 1997. Jivaro killers: Redmond, 1994.
130. Assumption of little recent evolutionary change: Pinker, 1997; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, 1990b.
131. Psychic unity of humankind: Brown, 1991, 2000; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a, 1992.
132. Mechanics of natural selection: Maynard Smith, 1998.
133. Quantitative and single-gene evolution and evolutionary psychology: Tooby & Cosmides, 1990a.
134. Genomic tests of selection: Akey, 2009; Kreitman, 2000; Przeworski, Hudson, & Di Rienzo, 2000.