161. “glow in our eyes”: Quoted in Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 228.
162. “developing wings”: Quoted in J. Diamond, “Vengeance is ours,”
New Yorker
, Apr. 21, 2008.
163. “hot with . . . joy”: Quoted in Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 230.
164. Universality of revenge: McCullough, 2008, pp. 74–76; Daly & Wilson, 1988, pp. 221–27. Revenge in tribal warfare: Chagnon, 1997; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Keeley, 1996; Wiessner, 2006.
165. Revenge in homicides, shootings, bombings: McCullough et al., 2010.
166. Revenge in terrorism, riots, and wars: Atran, 2003; Horowitz, 2001; Mueller, 2006.
167. Declaring war in anger: Luard, 1986, p. 269.
168. Cataclysmic fury: G. Prange, quoted in Mueller, 2006, p. 59.
169. Alternatives to reprisal not considered after Pearl Harbor or 9/11: Mueller, 2006.
171. Revenge fantasies: Buss, 2005; Kenrick & Sheets, 1994.
172. Revenge in the lab: McCullough, 2008.
173. Drinking to salve frustrated revenge: Giancola, 2000.
174. Rage circuit: Panksepp, 1998.
175. Anger in the insula: Sanfey et al., 2003.
176. Neuroscience of revenge: de Quervain et al., 2004.
177. Neuroscience of revenge, empathy, and gender: Singer et al., 2006.
178. Men are from justice, women are from mercy: Gilligan, 1982.
179. Relational aggression in women: Crick et al., 2007; Geary, 2010.
180. Revenge as disease, forgiveness as cure: McCullough, 2008; McCullough et al., 2010.
181. Logic of deterrence: Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 128.
182. Models of the evolution of cooperation: Axelrod, 1984/2006; Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981; McCullough, 2008; Nowak, 2006; Ridley, 1997; Sigmund, 1997.
183. Prisoner’s Dilemma as great idea: Poundstone, 1992.
184. First Iterated PD tournament: Axelrod, 1984/2006; Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981.
185. Reciprocal altruism: Trivers, 1971.
186. More recent tournaments: McCullough, 2008; Nowak, May, & Sigmund, 1995; Ridley, 1997; Sigmund, 1997.
187. Components of Tit for Tat: Axelrod, 1984/2006.
188. Indirect reciprocity: Nowak, 2006; Nowak & Sigmund, 1998.
189. Public Goods game: Fehr & Gächter, 2000; Herrmann, Thöni, & Gächter, 2008a; Ridley, 1997.
190. Tragedy of the Commons: Hardin, 1968.
191. Effectiveness of deterrence in economic games: Fehr & Gächter, 2000; Herrmann, Thöni, & Gächter, 2008b; McCullough, 2008; McCullough et al., 2010; Ridley, 1997.
192. Fear of revenge mitigates revenge: Diamond, 1977; see also Ford & Blegen, 1992.
193. Implacability of revenge: Frank, 1988; Schelling, 1960. Self-help justice: Black, 1983; Daly & Wilson, 1988.
194. Vengeful anger as a recalibration mechanism: Sell, Tooby, & Cosmides, 2009.
195. Target must know he has been singled out: Gollwitzer & Denzler, 2009.
196. Audience effects on revenge: Bolton & Zwick, 1995; Brown, 1968; Kim, Smirth, & Brigham, 1998.
197. Audience effects on fights: Felson, 1982.
198. Ultimatum game: Bolton & Zwick, 1995; Fehr & Gächter, 2000; Ridley, 1997; Sanfey et al., 2003.
199. Ultimatum game in the scanner: Sanfey et al., 2003.
200. Moralization Gap and escalation of revenge: Baumeister, 1997.
201. Boys in backseat: D. Gilbert, “He who cast the first stone probably didn’t,”
New York Times
, Jul. 24, 2006.
202. Two eyes for an eye: Shergill, Bays, Frith, & Wolpert, 2003.
203. Just deserts as justification of criminal punishment: Kaplan, 1973.
204. Bafflegab about justice: Daly & Wilson, 1988, p. 256.
205. Deterrence versus just deserts: Carlsmith, Darley, & Robinson, 2002.
206. Pure justice as an antigaming strategy: Pinker, 2002, chap. 10.
207. Informal cooperation in Shasta County: Ellickson, 1991.
208. Spiteful punishment across societies: Herrmann et al., 2008a, 2008b.
209. Forgiveness as the dimmer of revenge: McCullough, 2008; McCullough et al., 2010.
210. Forgiveness in primates: de Waal, 1996.
211. Boys at war at Robbers Cave: Sherif, 1966.
212. Guilt, shame, embarrassment: Baumeister, Stillwell, & Heatherton, 1994; Haidt, 2002; Trivers, 1971.
213. Common knowledge: Chwe, 2001; Lee & Pinker, 2010; Lewis, 1969; Pinker, 2007b; Pinker, Nowak, & Lee, 2008.
214. Political apologies: Dodds, 2003b, accessed Jun. 28, 2010. See also Dodds, 2003a.
215. Tolerating injustice: Long & Brecke, 2003, pp. 70–71.
216. “If you want peace, work for peace”: Goldstein, 2011.
217. Reconciliation gestures: Long & Brecke, 2003, p. 72.
218. Shakespearean and Chekhovian tragedies: Oz, 1993, p. 260.
219. Occasional effectiveness of torture: Levinson, 2004a, p. 34; P. Finn, J. Warrick, & J. Tate, “Detainee became an asset,”
Washington Post
, Aug. 29, 2009.
220. Occasional justifiability of torture: Levinson, 2004a; Posner, 2004; Walzer, 2004.
221. Ineffectiveness of most torture: A. Grafton, “Say anything,”
New Republic
, Nov. 5, 2008.
222. Execution as entertainment: Tuchman, 1978.
223. Serial killers versus mass murderers: Schechter, 2003.
224. More serial murder scholars than serial murderers: Fox & Levin, 1999, p. 166.
225. Decline in the number of serial killers: C. Beam, “Blood loss: The decline of the serial killer,”
Slate
, Jan. 5, 2011.
226. Number of serial killers and victims: Fox & Levin, 1999, p. 167; J. A. Fox, cited in Schechter, 2003, p. 286.
227. No identifiable cause of serial killers: Schechter, 2003.
228. Morbid fascination: Nell, 2006; Tiger, 2006; Baumeister, 1997.
229. Sadism as dominance: Potegal, 2006.
230. Schadenfreude in the scanner: Takahashi et al., 2009.
231. Revenge turns off empathy: Singer et al., 2006. Revenge requires knowledge of victim’s awareness: Gollwitzer & Denzler, 2009.
232. More M than S: Baumeister, 1997; Baumeister & Campbell, 1999.
233. Intertwined circuits for sex and aggression: Panksepp, 1998.
234. Gun as hard-on: Quoted in Thayer, 2004, p. 191.
235. Killing as orgasm: Quoted in Baumeister, 1997, p. 224.
236. Martyrologies: Gallonio, 1903/2004; Puppi, 1990.
237. Women in peril in macabre entertainment: Schechter, 2005.
238. Aroused during flogging: Theweleit, 1977/1987, quoted in deMause, 2002, p. 217.
239. Male serial killers: Schechter, 2003, p. 31.
240. Female serial killers: Schechter, 2003, p. 31.
241. Guilt is anticipatory: Baumeister, 1997, chap. 10; Baumeister et al., 1994.
242. Prohibitions of torture: Levinson, 2004b.
243. Torture warrants: Dershowitz, 2004b.
244. Response to torture warrants: Dershowitz, 2004b; Levinson, 2004a.
245. Taboo against torture is useful: Levinson, 2004a; Posner, 2004.
246. Aversiveness of conspecifics in pain: de Waal, 1996; Preston & de Waal, 2002.
247. Reasons for aversiveness of pain displays: Hauser, 2000, pp. 219–23.
248. Anxiety while hurting others: Milgram, 1974.
249. Trolley Problem: Greene & Haidt, 2002; Greene et al., 2001.
250. Aversion to direct violence: Collins, 2008.
251. Ordinary Germans: Browning, 1992.
252. Nausea not soul-searching: Baumeister, 1997, p. 211.
253. Distinguishing fiction from reality: Sperber, 2000.
254. Blunted emotions in psychopathy: Blair, 2004; Hare, 1993; Raine et al., 2000.
255. Variability among guards: Baumeister, 1997, chap. 7.
256. Sadism as an acquired taste: Baumeister, 1997, chap. 7; Baumeister & Campbell, 1999.
257. Escalating sadism and serial killers: Baumeister, 1997; Schechter, 2003.
258. Opponent-process theory of motivation: Solomon, 1980.
259. Sadism and opponent-process theory: Baumeister, 1997, chap. 7; Baumeister & Campbell, 1999.
260. Benign masochism: Rozin, 1996. Benign masochism as an adaptation: Pinker, 1997, pp. 389, 540.
261. Ideological violence: Baumeister, 1997, chap. 6; Chirot & McCauley, 2006; Glover, 1999; Goldhagen, 2009; Kiernan, 2007; Valentino, 2004.
262. I thank Jennifer Sheehy-Skeffington for this insight.
263. Group polarization: Myers & Lamm, 1976.
264. Groupthink: Janis, 1982.
265. Group animosity: Hoyle, Pinkley, & Insko, 1989; see also Baumeister, 1997, 193–94.
266. Obedience experiments: Milgram, 1974.
267. Fact and fiction about Kitty Genovese: Manning, Levine, & Collins, 2007. Bystander apathy: Latané & Darley, 1970.
268. Stanford Prison Experiment: Zimbardo, 2007; Zimbardo, Maslach, & Haney, 2000.
269. No Germans punished for disobedience: Goldhagen, 2009.
270. Milgram replication: Burger, 2009. See Reicher & Haslam, 2006, for a partial replication of the Stanford Prison Experiment, but with too many differences to allow a test of trends over time.
271. Obedience might be even lower: Twenge, 2009.
272. Advantages of conformity: Deutsch & Gerard, 1955.
273. Positive feedback loops in popularity: Salganik, Dodds, & Watts, 2006.
274. Pluralistic ignorance: Centola, Willer, & Macy, 2005; Willer et al., 2009.
275. Spiral of silence and Basque terrorism: Spencer & Croucher, 2008.
276. Asch conformity experiment: Asch, 1956.
277. Enforcement and pluralistic ignorance: Centola et al., 2005; Willer et al., 2009.
278. Too terrified to stop clapping: Glover, 1999, p. 242.
279. Thought control in Maoist China: Glover, 1999, pp. 292–93.
280. Simulated pluralistic ignorance: Centola et al., 2005.
281. Growth of fascism: Payne, 2005.
282. Six degrees of separation: Travers & Milgram, 1969.
283. Pluralistic ignorance in the lab: Willer et al., 2009.
284. Sokal Hoax: Sokal, 2000.
285. Cognitive dissonance: Festinger, 1957.
286. Moral disengagement: Bandura, 1999; Bandura, Underwood, & Fromson, 1975; Kelman, 1973; Milgram, 1974; Zimbardo, 2007; Baumeister, 1997, part 3.
287. Politics and the English Language: Orwell, 1946/1970.
288. Burke: Quoted in Nunberg, 2006, p. 20.
289. Euphemism, framing, and plausible deniability: Pinker, 2007b; Pinker et al., 2008.
290. Gradual slide into barbarism: Glover, 1999; Baumeister, 1997, chaps. 8 and 9.
291. Milgram experiment as Escalation game: Katz, 1987.
292. Diffusion of responsibility: Bandura et al., 1975; Milgram, 1974.
293. Diffusion of responsibility in military units and bureaucracies: Arendt, 1963; Baumeister, 1997; Browning, 1992; Glover, 1999.
294. Resistance to up-close harm: Greene, in press.
295. Psychic numbing through large numbers: Slovic, 2007.
296. Derogating the victim: Bandura et al., 1975.
297. Advantageous comparison: Bandura, 1999; Gabor, 1994.
298. A little psychology goes a long way: See also Kahneman & Renshon, 2007.
Chapter 9: Better Angels
1. Age of empathy: de Waal, 2009.
3. Building peace one child at a time: Gordon, 2009.
4. Faculties of peaceful coexistence: Dawkins, 1976/1989; McCullough, 2008; Nowak, 2006; Ridley, 1997.
5. Sentiments of virtue: Hume, 1751/2004.
6. Titchener on empathy: Titchener, 1909/1973.
7. Popularity of
empathy
,
willpower, self-control:
Based on an analysis of Google Books by the Bookworm program, Michel et al., 2011; see the caption to figure 7–1.