Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (74 page)

42.
Domenico, op. cit., p. 157; Rioux, op. cit., p. 40

43.
M. Szöllösi-Janze, “ ‘Pfeilkreuzler, Landesverräter und andere Volksfeinde’: Generalabrechnung in Ungarn,” in Henke, op. cit., pp. 317–18

44.
P. Zinner, op. cit., p. 25

45.
E. Völkl, “Abrechnungfuror in Kroatien,” in Henke, pp. 366–74

46.
On German measures behind Soviet lines, see P. Biddiscombe, “Prodding the Russian Bear: pro-German resistance in Romania, 1944–5,”
European History Quarterly
, 23 (April 1993), pp. 193–232; J. Schechtman, “Elimination of German minorities in southeastern Europe,”
Journal of Central European Affairs
(July 1946), pp. 151–66; Ionescu,
Communism in Rumania, 1944–1962
(Oxford, 1964), pp. 110–11

47.
Hungary, in Henke, op. cit.; P. Zinner,
Revolution in Hungary
, (New York/London, 1963), pp. 51–2

48.
Kersten, op. cit., pp. 390–92; see also Hann, op. cit., pp. 33–5

49.
B. Davidson,
Germany: What Now? Potsdam-Partition, 1945–1949
(London, 1950), p. 2; L. Krieger, “The inter-regnum in Germany: March-August 1945,”
Political Science Quarterly
, 64: 4 (December 1949), pp. 507–32

50.
D. Botting,
From the Ruins of the Reich: Germany 1945–49
(New York, 1985), pp. 109–11; A. Grosser,
Germany in Our Time: A Political History of the Postwar Years
(New York, 1971), pp. 26–7

51.
J. P. Nettl,
The Eastern Zone and Soviet Policy in Germany, 1945–1950
(London, 1951), ch. 3

52.
W. Ulbricht,
Der faschistische deutsche Imperialismus (1933–1945)
(Berlin, 1945)

53.
H. Zink,
American Military Government in Germany
(New York, 1947), p. 143; J. Gimbel,
A German Community under American Occupation: Marburg, 1945–1952
(Stanford, Calif., 1961), pp. 109, 140–42, 163; A. J. Merritt and R. L. Merritt (eds.),
Public Opinion in Occupied Germany: The OMGUS Surveys, 1945–1949
(Urbana, Ill., 1970), pp. 79–80, 304–5

54.
D. Culbert, “American film policy in the re-education of Germany after 1945,” in N. Pronay and K. Wilson (eds.),
The Political Re-education of Germany and Her Allies after World War Two
(Totowa, NJ, 1985), p. 179; also B. S. Chamberlain, “Todesmühlen: ein früher Versuch zur Massen-‘Umerziehung’ im besetzten
Deutschland 1945–1946,”
Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte
, 29 (July 1981), pp. 420–36

55.
S. Padover,
Experiment in Germany: The Story of an American Intelligence Officer
(New York, 1946), pp. 135, 339

56.
K. Jürgensen, “The concept and practice of ‘re-education’ in Germany, 1945–50,” in Pronay and Wilson, op. cit., p. 93; F. Roy Willis,
The French in Germany, 1945–1949
(Stanford, Calif., 1962), pp. 163–77; J. F. Tent,
Mission on the Rhine: Reeducation and De-Nazification in American-Occupied Germany
(Chicago/London, 1982), pp. 313–14

57.
V. Rudolph, “The execution of policy, 1945–47,” in R. Slusser (ed.),
Soviet Economic Policy in Postwar Germany
(New York, 1953), p. 40; Nettl, op. cit., pp. 167–81

58.
Zink, op. cit., pp. 180–83

59.
H. Krisch,
German Politics under Soviet Occupation
(New York/London, 1974), p. 40

60.
Grosser, op. cit., p. 66

61.
C. Schorske, “The dilemma in Germany,”
Virginia Quarterly Review
, 24: 1 (winter 1948), pp. 29–42; Krieger, “The inter-regnum in Germany: March-August 1945,”
Political Science Quarterly
, 64:4 (December, 1949), pp. 507–32

62.
Lottman, op. cit., p. 68

8: B
UILDING
P
EOPLE’S
D
EMOCRACY

1.
Cited in F. J. Kase,
People’s Democracy: A Contribution to the Study of the Communist Theory of State and Revolution
(Leyden, 1968), p. 21

2.
J. Pelikan (ed.),
The Czechoslovak Political Trials, 1950–1954: The Suppressed Report of the Dubcek Government’s Commission of Inquiry, 1968
(London, 1971), p. 38

3.
See now, A. Gleason,
Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War
(Oxford, 1995)

4.
See D. J. Dallin,
The New Soviet Empire
(London, 1951)

5.
H. Seton-Watson,
Eastern Europe between the Wars, 1918–1941
(1962 edn, first pub. 1945), pp. 262–3; R. R. Betts (ed.),
Central and South East Europe, 1945–1948
(London, 1949), p. 212

6.
Soviet military strengths are cited from W. Park,
Defending the West: A History of NATO
(Brighton, 1986), pp. 23–5; Naimark, p. 17; see also M. Evangelista, “Stalin’s postwar army reappraised,”
International Security
, 7: 3 (winter 1982–3), pp. 110–38; C. Gati,
Hungary and the Soviet Bloc
(Durham, NC, 1986), p. 37; Myant, op. cit., p. 58.

7.
See J. Adelman,
Communist Armies in Politics
(Boulder, Colo., 1982); D. Deletant,
Ceausescu and the Securitate: Coercion and Dissent in Romania, 1965–1989
(London, 1995)

8.
A. Korbonski, “The Polish Army,” in Adelman, op. cit., p. 111

9.
Zubok and Pleshakov, op. cit., p. 32

10.
See N. Naimark, “Nationalism and the East European Revolution, 1944–1947,” paper prepared for Conference on “Remembering, Adapting, Overcoming:
The Legacy of World War Two in Europe” (New York University, 24–27 April 1997)

11.
Naimark,
Russians in Germany
, op. cit., pp. 260–75; G. Sandford,
From Hitler to Ulbricht: The Communist Reconstruction of East Germany, 1945–1946
(Princeton, NJ, 1983), pp. 49–51

12.
F. J. Kase,
People’s Democracy: A Contribution to the Study of the Communist Theory of State and Revolution
(Leyden, 1968), p. 103; Zubok, op. cit., p. 106

13.
Z. Mlynar,
Night Frost in Prague: The End of Humane Socialism
(London, 1980), pp. 1–2

14.
ibid., p. 2

15.
J. Kurczewski,
The Resurrection of Rights in Poland
(Oxford, 1993), p. 10; Zinner,
Revolution in Hungary
(New York, 1962), pp. 52, 62

16.
Gati, op. cit., p. 89

17.
Zubok, op. cit., pp. 116–19

18.
Gati, op. cit., pp. 86–8

19.
Barker, op. cit., p. 148; T. Remeikis,
Opposition to Soviet Rule in Lithuania, 1945–1980
(Chicago, 1980), pp. 210–11

20.
On judges, J. Kurczewski,
The Resurrection of Rights in Poland
(Oxford, 1993) p. 70

21.
J. Connelly, “Foundations for reconstructing elites: Communist higher educational policies in the Czech lands, East Germany and Poland, 1945–48,”
East European Politics and Societies
, 10: 3 (fall 1996), pp. 367–92

22.
S. Kopacsi,
In the Name of Working Class
(London, 1989), p. 42; Myant, op. cit., p. 59, states that
after
the purge of the Czech police, there were still 25,000 from the old force as against 12,000 new ones.

23.
See the excellent analysis in Gati, op. cit.; A. Mastny, “Pax Sovietica,” in R. Ahmann, A. M. Birke and M. Howard (eds.),
The Quest for Stability: Problems of European Security, 1918–1957
(Oxford, 1993), 379–89; M. Djilas,
Conversations with Stalin
(NY, 1962), p. 140

24.
Cited in B. Jelavich,
History of the Balkans
, vol. 2:
Twentieth Century
(Cambridge, 1983), pp. 326–7

25.
Cf. B. Szasz,
Volunteers for the Gallows: Anatomy of a Show-Trial
(London, 1971), pp. 146–7

26.
Estimates from Dellin, op. cit., p. 157; Zinner, op. cit., p. 115; F. Fejtö, op. cit., p. 18; Ionescu, op. cit., pp. 131, 199;
News from Behind the Iron Curtain
, 1: 5 (May 1952)

27.
See S. Kotkin,
Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilisation
(Berkeley/Los Angeles, Calif., 1995), pp. 198–203

28.
T. P. Alton,
Polish Postwar Economy
(New York, 1955), pp. 108–14

29.
UN Economic Commission for Europe,
Economic Survey of Europe since the War
(Geneva, 1953), pp. 21, 31 n. 1

30.
ibid., pp. 33, 35; Ambrosius and Hubbard, op. cit., p. 200

31.
On the Baltic states, see R. Misiunas and R. Taagepera,
The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940–1990
(Berkeley, Calif., 1993), pp. 94–107; it was the communist theorist Evgenii Preobrazhenskii who once termed the peasantry an “internal colony.”

32.
Deletant, op. cit., p. 26;
News from Behind the Iron Curtain
1: 1 (January 1952), p. 10; ibid., 1: 9 (September 1952)

33.
Ionescu, op. cit., p. 200; Kopacsi, op. cit., pp. 58–9

34.
News from Behind the Iron Curtain
, 1: 1, p. 16

35.
Mlynar, op. cit., p. 37; Zinner, op. cit.;
News from Behind the Iron Curtain
, 1: 4 (April 1952), p. 13; A. Aman, op. cit., p. 82, for rates of housing construction

36.
News from Behind the Iron Curtain
, p. 18

37.
Szasz, op. cit., p. 231; P. Kecskemeti,
The Unexpected Revolution: Social Forces in the Hungarian Uprising
(Stanford, Calif., 1961), p. 71

38.
Kecskemeti, op. cit., p. 31; Fejtö,
A History of the People’s Democracies
(Harmondsworth, Middx, 1974 edn.), p. 81

39.
See Kurczewski, op. cit., chs. 2–3

40.
Szasz, op. cit., p. 237

41.
Z. Brzezinski,
The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the 20th Century
(London, 1990), p. 53; P. Mosely, “Can Moscow match us industrially?” reprinted in his
The Kremlin and World Politics: Studies in Soviet Policy and Action
(New York, 1960)

42.
G. Ambrosius and W. Hubbard,
A Social and Economic History of 20th Century Europe
(London, 1989), p. 40; J. Kosinski, “Urbanization in East-Central Europe after World War 2,”
East European Quarterly
, 8: 2 (June 1974), p. 135

43.
See Aman, op. cit., p. 141

44.
L. A. Dellin (ed.),
Bulgaria
(New York, 1957), p. 253; V. Srb, “Population development and population policy in Czechoslovakia,”
Population Studies
, 16 (November 1962), pp. 147–60; M. Fulbrook, “On Germany’s double transformation,”
European History Quarterly
, 20: 3 (1990), pp. 402–15, on G. Helwig,
Frau und Familie: Bundesrepublik Deutschland-DDR
(Cologne, 1987)

45.
G. W. Hoffman and F. W. Neal,
Yugoslavia and the New Communism
(New York, 1962), p. 373; Fejtö, op. cit., pp. 424–5

46.
Mlynar, op. cit., p. 49; Ambrosius and Hubbard, op. cit., p. 70

47.
Hoffman and Neal, op. cit., p. 361

48.
W. Vucinich (ed.),
Contemporary Yugoslavia: Twenty Years of Socialist Experiment
(Berkeley/Los Angeles, Calif., 1969), p. 341

49.
Jelavich, op. cit., pp. ii, 344

50.
A. S. Deaton, “The structure of demand, 1920–1970,” in C. Cipolla (ed.),
The Fontana Economic History of Europe
, vol. 5:
The Twentieth Century
: 1 (London, 1982), pp. 124–5

51.
M. Pundeff, “Education for communism,” in S. Fischer-Galati (ed.),
Eastern Europe in the Sixties
(New York, 1963)

52.
Ionescu, op. cit., p. 267; P. Neuburg,
The Hero’s Children: The Postwar Generation in Eastern Europe
(London, 1972), p. 273