Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (77 page)

1.
Cited by B. Geremek, “Between hope and despair,” in S. Graubard (ed.),
Eastern Europe … Central Europe … Europe
(Boulder, Colo., 1991), pp. 95–113, cited on p. 103

2.
Cited by Misiunas and Taagepera,
The Baltic States: Years of Dependency, 1940–1990
(Berkeley, Calif., 1993 edn), p. 202

3.
J. Rothschild,
Return to Diversity: A Political History of East Central Europe since World War
2 (Oxford, 1989), p. 221

4.
Cited by T. Garton Ash,
The Uses of Adversity
(Cambridge, 1989), pp. 180–81

5.
B. Kaminski,
The Collapse of State Socialism: The Case of Poland
(Princeton, NJ, 1991), p. 3

6.
Growth rates from K. Dawisha,
Eastern Europe, Gorbachev and Reform: The Great Challenge
(Cambridge, 1990 edn), p. 169

7.
M. Bernstam, “Trends in the Soviet population,” pp. 185–214, and N. Eberstadt, “Health of an empire: poverty and social progress in the CMEA bloc,” pp. 221–55 in H. Rowen and C. Wolf (eds.),
The Future of the Soviet Empire
(New York, 1987)

8.
A. Shub,
An Empire Loses Hope
(London, 1971), p. 109; D. N. Nelson (ed.),
Communism and the Politics of Inequality
(Toronto, 1983); R. Laba,
The Roots of Solidarity: A Political Sociology of Poland’s Working-Class Democratization
(Princeton, NJ, 1991), pp. 118–19; P. Hauslohner, “Gorbachev’s social contract,”
Soviet Economy
, 3 (1987), pp. 54–89, and J. McAdams, “Crisis in the Soviet empire: three ambiguities in search of a prediction,”
Comparative Politics
, 20: 1 (October 1987), pp. 107–18; S. Miskiewicz, “Social and economic rights in Eastern Europe,” in G. R. Urban (ed.),
Social and Economic Rights in the Soviet Bloc
(New Brunswick, NJ, 1988), p. 98

9.
J. Rupnik, “Central Europe or Mitteleuropa?” in Graubard (ed.)
Eastern Europe … Central Europe … Europe
(Boulder, Colo., 1991), pp. 247–8

10.
Cited in Dawisha, op. cit., p. 192

11.
Gati, op. cit.

12.
Fulbrook, op. cit., pp. 38–9

13.
Cited by E. Behr, “
Kiss the Hand You Cannot Bite”: The Rise and Fall of the Ceauçescus
(London, 1991), pp. 180–81

14.
On systemization, see D. Giurescu,
The Razing of Romania’s Past
(New York, 1989)

15.
L. Labedz (ed.),
Poland under Jaruzelski
(New York, 1984), p. 102

16.
Kaminski, op. cit., p. 193; Labedz, op. cit., p. 3

17.
Behr, op. cit., pp. 165–6

18.
A. Uci, “The place of folk art in Socialist artistic culture,” in anon.,
Questions of the Albanian Folklore
(Tirana, 1984), p. 6

19.
See N. Naimark, “ ‘Ich will hierraus’: emigration and the collapse of the German Democratic Republic,” in I. Banac (ed.),
Eastern Europe in Revolution
(Ithaca, NY, 1992), pp. 72–95

20.
Garton Ash, op. cit., p. 48

21.
Cited by Garton Ash, op. cit., p. 264

22.
For some interesting reflections, see A. Nove, “The fall of empires—Russia and the Soviet Union,” in G. Lundestad (ed.),
The Fall of Great Powers: Peace, Stability and Legitimacy
(Oxford, 1994), pp. 125–46

23.
Cited by C. Gati,
The Bloc that Failed: Soviet-East European Relations in Transition
(London, 1990), p. 127

24.
Dawisha, op. cit., pp. 104–5

25.
J. Valdez,
Internationalism and the Ideology of Soviet Influence in Eastern Europe
(Cambridge, 1993), p. 98

26.
M. Gorbachev,
Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World
(London, 1988), p. 107

27.
Ibid., p. 138

28.
From “The place and role of Eastern Europe in the relaxation of tensions between the USA and the USSR” (1988), cited in Gati,
The Bloc that Failed
, op. cit., p. 206

29.
Misiunas and Taagepera,
The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940–1990
(Berkeley, Calif., 1993 edn), pp. 303–12

30.
Ibid., p. 120

31.
See A. E. Dick Howard (ed.),
Constitution Making in Eastern Europe
(Washington, 1993)

32.
“Getting better, getting worse: minorities in East Central Europe,”
Dissent
(summer 1996)

33.
On purges, see T. Rosenberg,
The Haunted Land
(London, 1993)

34.
Financial Times
, 4 May 1994

35.
A. Robinson, “Painful rebirth from the ashes,”
Financial Times
, 11 November 1994

36.
Financial Times
, 4 May 1994

37.
P. Zelikow and C. Rice,
Germany Reunified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft
(Cambridge, Mass., Harvard, 1995)

38.
“On the unification of Germany,”
Independent
, 17 June 1989 cited by G.-J. Glaessner, “German unification and the West,” in Glaessner and I. Wallace (eds.),
The German Revolution of 1989: Causes and Consequences
(Oxford, 1992), pp. 208–9

39.
L. Kürti, “Rocking the state: youth and rock music culture in Hungary, 1976–1990,”
EEPS
, 5: 3 (fall 1991), pp. 483–513

E
PILOGUE
: M
AKING
E
UROPE

1.
F. Chabod,
Storia dell’idea d’Europa
(Bari, 1961), p. 8

2.
S. Berstein and P. Milza,
Histoire de l’Europe
, vol. 3 (Paris, 1992), conclusion

3.
A. Fisher,
A History of Europe
, vol. 1 (London, 1960 edn), pp. 13–18; O. Halecki,
The Limits and Divisions of European History
(Notre Dame, Ind., 1962)

4.
Chabod, op. cit., p. 20

5.
S. Hoffmann, “Obstinate or obsolete: the fate of the nation-state and the case of western Europe,”
Daedalus
(summer 1966), pp. 862–915

6.
R. Aron, “Old nations, new Europe,”
Daedalus
(winter 1964), pp. 43–67. See too M. Mann, “Nation-states in Europe and other continents: diversifying, developing, not dying,” in G. Balakrishnan (ed.),
Mapping the Nation
(London, 1996), pp. 295–317

GUIDE TO FURTHER READING
*

For general approaches to twentieth-century European history, George Lichtheim,
Europe in the Twentieth Century
(1972), is the most thought-provoking, James Joll,
Europe Since 1870
(1990), the clearest. Robert Paxton,
Twentieth Century Europe
(New York, 1985), is an excellent textbook. Eric Hobsbawm,
Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century
(1994), is more ambitious than this book in aiming to cover the entire globe. About the only serious overview of twentieth-century value-systems is K. D. Bracher,
The Age of Ideologies: A History of Political Thought in the 20th Century
(1985). For the Left, there is now Donald Sassoon’s monumental
One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century
. Michael Oakeshott,
The Social and Political Doctrines of Contemporary Europe
(1940), remains well worth reading.

On the idea of Europe, there is F. Chabod,
Storia dell’idea d’Europa
(Bari, 1961), O. Halecki,
The Limits and Divisions of European History
(1950), and D. Hay,
Europe: The Emergence of an Idea
(Edinburgh, 1968). K. Wilson and J. van der Dussen (eds.),
The History of the Idea of Europe
(1993), is a good recent survey. I have found Norman Cohn,
Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come
(1995), and A. Pagden,
Lords of All the World: Ideologies of Empire in Spain, Britain and France, c. 1500-c. 1800
(1995), valuable in offering perspectives on the utopian and universalistic traditions in European thought which underpinned the emergence of twentieth-century political ideologies.

General surveys of social and economic history include G. Ambrosius
and W. Hubbard’s brilliant
A Social and Economic History of 20th Century Europe
(1989) and the excellent Fontana
Economic History of Europe
series edited by Carlo Cipolla. G. Therborn,
European Modernity and Beyond
(1995), contains much fascinating information, especially on the post-war period. Statistics are easily consulted in the publications of the League of Nations, the UN’s Economic Commission for Europe, Eurostat and B. R. Mitchell,
European Historical Statistics, 1750–1975
(1980 edn). L. Kosinski,
The Population of Europe
(1970), is a concise introduction. E. M. Kulischer,
Europe on the Move: War and Population Changes, 1917–1947
(New York, 1948), is a classic, to be supplemented with Joseph Schechtman’s two volumes on population transfers between 1939 and 1955, by M. Marrus,
The Unwanted: European Refugees in the 20th Century
(1985), and also by R. Cohen (ed.),
Cambridge Survey of World Migration
(Cambridge, 1995). Excellent historical atlases include
The Penguin Atlas of World History
, vol. 2 (1974), P. R. Magocsi,
Historical Atlas of East Central Europe
(1993), and R. Overy (ed.),
The Times Atlas of the Twentieth Century
(1996).

Post-war historians usually discuss inter-war politics in terms of the rise of fascism. There is a vast literature on this, to which good guides are W. Laqueur (ed.),
Fascism: A Reader’s Guide
(1976), H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds.),
The European Right: A Historical Profile
(Berkeley, Calif., 1965), and R. Bessel (ed.),
Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts
(Cambridge, 1996). Much of this literature tries to define fascism and then works out which regimes were and were not fascist. This approach forms the basis for Stanley Payne’s wonderfully comprehensive
A History of Fascism, 1914–1945
(1995). The approach adopted here is rather different, taking as its starting point not fascism’s rise but the crisis and weakness of inter-war democracy. One of the few post-war interpretations to formulate the problem in this way is K. Newman’s unjustly neglected
European Democracy between the Wars
(1970). Inter-war scholars confronted democracy’s failings more directly. See A. J. Zurcher,
The Experiment with Democracy in Central Europe
(New York, 1933), and V. Dean
et al., New Governments of Europe
(New York, 1934), as well as W. E. Rappard,
The Crisis of Democracy
(Chicago, 1938). C. Schmitt (ed. E. Kennedy),
The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy
(Cambridge, Mass., 1985) is a seminal critique by one of Weimar’s foremost opponents.