Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (70 page)

1.
P. Corsi,
The Protection of Mothers and Children in Italy
(Rome, 1938), p. 3; M. Hirschfeld,
Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges
, ii (Leipzig, 1930), p. 437

2.
A. Pfoser, “Verstörte Manner und emanzipierte Frauen,” in F. Kadrnoska (ed.),
Aufbruch und Untergang: Osterreichische Kultur zwischen 1918 und 1938
(Vienna, 1981); R. J. Sieder, “Behind the lines: working-class family life in wartime Vienna,” in R. Wall and J. Winter (eds.),
The Upheaval of War: Family, Work and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918
(Cambridge, 1988), pp. 109–38

3.
S. Pedersen,
Family, Dependence and the Origins of the Welfare State: Britain and France, 1914–1945
(Cambridge, Eng., 1993), p. 129

4.
M. L. Roberts,
Civilization without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Postwar France
(Chicago, 1994), pp. 70, 125

5.
W. Z. Goldman,
Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917–1936
(Cambridge, Eng., 1993), chs. 1, 3

6.
Cited in T. Verveniotis, “I thesmothetisi tou dikaiomatos tis psifou ton gynaikon apo ton elliniko antistasiako kinima (1941–1944),”
Dini: Feministiko periodiko
, 6 (1993), pp. 180–95 (p. 181)

7.
Constitution cited by D. Keogh and F. O’Driscoll, “Ireland,” in T. Buchanan and M. Conway (eds.),
Political Catholicism in Europe, 1918–1965
(Oxford, 1996), p. 292

8.
Hanna Hacker, “Staatsburgerinnen” in Kadrnoska, op. cit., pp. 225–66; V. de Grazia,
How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922–1945
(Berkeley/Los Angeles, 1992), p. 25; Goldman, op. cit., chs. 5–6

9.
J. M. Winter, “The fear of population decline in western Europe, 1870–1940,” in R. W. Hiorns (ed.),
Demographic Patterns in Developed Societies
(London, 1980), 178–81; P. Ogden and M.-M. Huss, “Demography and pro-natalism in France in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,”
Journal of Historical Geography
, 8:3 (1982), pp. 283–98; S. Weiss, “Wilhelm Schallmeyer and the logic of German eugenics,”
Isis
, 77 (March 1986), p. 45; C. Pagliano, “Scienza e stirpe: eugenica in Italia (1912–1939),”
Passato e presente
(1984), pp. 61–97

10.
M.-M. Huss, “Pronatalism and the popular ideology of the child in wartime France: the evidence of the picture postcard,” in Wall and Winter, op. cit., pp. 329–69; C. Usborne, “Pregnancy is the woman’s active service,” in Wall and Winter, ibid., pp. 389–416

11.
D. Glass,
Population Policies and Movements in Europe
(Oxford, 1940), pp. 84, 152, 274; Corsi, op. cit., p. 4

12.
Mussolini cited in de Grazia, op. cit., p. 41; W. Schneider,
Quantity and Quality: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in 20th Century France
(Cambridge, 1990), p. 139; Pedersen, op. cit.

13.
R. Bridenthal, “ ‘Professional housewives’: stepsisters of the women’s movement,” in R. Bridenthal, A. Grossmann and M. Kaplan (eds.),
When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany
(New York, 1984), pp. 153–74

14.
Goldman, op. cit., pp. 288–89

15.
De Grazia, op. cit., p. 55; Schneider, op. cit., p. 120; G. McCleary, “Prewar European population policies,”
The Millbank Memorial Fund Quarterly
, pp. 104–20; Glass, op. cit., pp. 282–4

16.
M. Nash, “Pronatalism and motherhood in Franco’s Spain,” in G. Bock and P. Thane (eds.)
Maternity and Gender Policies: Women and the Rise of European Welfare States, 1880s-1950s
(London/New York, 1991), p. 169

17.
Glass, op. cit., pp. 45–50

18.
A. Hackett, “Helene Stocker: leftwing intellectual and sex reformer,” in Bridenthal, Grossmann and Kaplan (eds.),
When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany
(New York, 1984), pp. 153–74

19.
Glass, op. cit., conclusion; L. Thompson,
“Lebensborn
and the eugenics policy of the
Reichsfuhrer-SS,” Central European History
, 4 (1971), pp. 54–77

20.
A. Gramsci,
Selections from the Prison Notebooks
(London, 1971), p. 242

21.
J. Lewis,
The Politics of Motherhood: Child and Maternal Welfare in England, 1900–1939
(London, 1980), pp. 30–33; de Grazia, op. cit., pp. 63–5

22.
J. Lewis, “Red Vienna, socialism in one city, 1918–1927,”
European Studies Review
, 13: 3 (July 1983), pp. 335–54; B. Schwan,
Städtebau und Wohnungswesen der Welt: Town Planning and Housing throughout the World
(Berlin, 1935), pp. 303–4; A. Lees,
Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought, 1820–1940
(Manchester, 1985), p. 272

23.
F. Smejkal
et al., Devetsil: the Czech Avant-Garde of the 1920s and 1930s
(Oxford, 1990), p. 46

24.
Lees, op. cit., 272; Schwan, op. cit.

25.
G. Jones,
Social Hygiene in Twentieth Century Britain
(London/Sydney, 1986)

26.
Eugenics, Genetics and the Family
, i (Scientific Papers of the Second International Congress of Eugenics) (Baltimore, Md, 1923), p. 1

27.
D. Kirk,
Europe’s Population in the Interwar Years
(Princeton, NJ, 1946), pp. 10–33; A. Keith,
An Autobiography
(London, 1950), pp. 552–3; T. Kalikow, “Konrad Lorenz’s ethological theory: explanation and ideology, 1938–1943,”
Journal of the History of Biology
, 16 (1983), pp. 39–73; A. Funk,
Film und Jugend: Eine Untersuchung über die Psychischen Wirkungen des Films im Leben der Jugendlichen
(Munich, 1934)

28.
Lees, op. cit., p. 275

29.
D. Horn,
Social Bodies: Science, Reproduction and Italian Modernity
(Princeton, NJ, 1994), p. 103

30.
Churchill cited in D. Kevles,
In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity
(New York, 1985), p. 99

31.
H. Laughlin, “The present status of eugenical sterilization in the United States,” in
Eugenics in Race and State
(Baltimore, Md, 1923), p. 290; J. Noakes, “Nazism and eugenics: the background to the Nazi sterilization law of 14 July 1933,” in R. J. Bullen
et al
. (eds.),
Ideas into Politics: Aspects of European History, 1880–1950
(London, 1983), p. 80

32.
M. E. Kopp, “Eugenic sterilization laws in Europe,”
American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
, 34 (September 1937), pp. 499–504; Jones, op. cit., pp. 88–97; B. Mallet, “The reduction of the fecundity of the socially inadequate,” in
A Decade of Progress in Eugenics
(Baltimore, Md, 1934), pp. 364–8

33.
See esp. Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit.

34.
Cited by Burleigh and Wippermann, op. cit., p. 177

35.
Sir Harry Johnston, “Empire and anthropology,”
The Nineteenth Century and After
(August 1908); B. Müller-Hill,
Murderous Science: Elimination by Scientific Selection of Jews, Gypsies and Others: Germany, 1933–1945
(Oxford, 1988)

36.
Schneider, op. cit., pp. 228, 242–54

37.
Barkan,
The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars
(Cambridge, Eng., 1992)

38.
J. S. Huxley and A. C. Haddon,
We Europeans: A Survey of “Racial” Problems
(London/New York, 1936), p. 13

39.
Ibid., pp. 132, 136; see also G. M. Morant,
The Races of Central Europe
(London, 1939), pp. 9,15

40.
M. Kohn,
The Race Gallery: The Revival of Scientific Racism
(London, 1995)

4: T
HE
C
RISIS
of C
APITALISM

1.
Cited in D. Peukert, “The lost generation: youth unemployment at the end of the Weimar Republic,” in R. J. Evans and D. Geary (eds.),
The German Unemployed
(London, 1987), p. 180

2.
S. Asch,
The Calf of Paper
(London, 1936), p. 24

3.
Cited in A. Orde,
British Policy and European Reconstruction after the First World War
(Cambridge, 1990), p. 178

4.
ibid., p. 310

5.
ibid., p. 143

6.
Priestley cited in C. Waters, “J. B. Priestley” in Mandler and Pedersen (eds.), op. cit., p. 211

7.
Cited in R. Boyce,
British Capitalism at the Crossroads, 1919–1932: A Study in Politics, Economics and International Relations
(Cambridge, Cambs., 1987), pp. 115–16

8.
Cited by Orde, op. cit., p. 317; Boyce, op. cit., p. 108; also Boyce, “British capitalism and the idea of European unity between the wars,” in P. M. Stirk (ed.),
European Unity in Context: The Interwar Period
(London, 1989), pp. 65–84

9.
O. Spengler,
Man and Technics
(New York, 1932), pp. 101–2

10.
Cited in R. Skidelsky,
Politicians and the Slump: The Labour Government of 1929–31
(London, 1967), p. 244

11.
Cited in Boyce, op. cit., pp. 172–3

12.
D. Kazamias,
Sta ftocha chronia tis dekaetias tou’30
(Athens, 1997), p. 71; M. Jahoda, P. Lazarsfeld and H. Zeisel,
Marienthal: The Sociography of an Unemployed Community
, cited by R. Overy,
The Interwar Crisis, 1919–1939
(London, 1994), p. 113

13.
C. Webster, “Hungry or Healthy Thirties?,”
History Workshop Journal
, 13 (spring 1982), pp. 110–29; M. Mitchell, “The effects of unemployment on the social condition of women and children in the 1930s,”
History Workshop Journal
, 19 (spring 1985), pp. 105–23

14.
The most reliable figures are in S. G. Wheatcroft and R. W. Davies, “Population,” in R. W. Davies, M. Harrison and S. G. Wheatcroft (eds.),
The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 57–80; see also F. M. Wilson,
In the Margins of Chaos: Recollections of Relief Work in and between Three Wars
(London, 1944), p. 145

15.
Cited in R. Pethybridge,
One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forwards: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy
(Oxford, 1990), p. 143

16.
Pethybridge, op. cit., p. 415

17.
See M. Lewin, “The immediate background of Soviet collectivisation” in his
The Making of the Soviet System
(London, 1985), pp. 91–121; on numbers shot, see R. W. Davies, “Forced labour under Stalin: the archive revelations,”
New Left Review
, 214 (November/December 1995), pp. 62–80; see generally, R. Conquest,
Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine
(New York, 1986), esp. pp. 120–28