5
Coulter,
Confederate States of America,
393-95.
6
Davis,
Jefferson Davis,
409—10.
7
Among the more important analyses of Confederate nationalism are Gallagher,
Confederate War,
63-111; Faust,
Creation of Confederate Nationalism;
Emory M. Thomas,
Confederate Nation;
Rable,
Confederate Republic;
McPherson,
For Cause and Comrades,
94-102, 170-76; and Mitchell, “Creation of Confederate Loyalties,” in Abzug and Maizlish,
New Perspectives on Race and Slavery in America.
Still useful is Potter’s “The Historian’s Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa,” in Potter,
The South and the Sectional Conflict,
34—83.
8
Quoted in Neely,
Last Best Hope of Earth,
26.
9
Quoted in Grimsley,
Hard Hand of War,
86.
10
A. W Bill to “Dear Friend,” August 8, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 2, Folder 8, AAS.
11
Richardson,
Messages and Papers of Jefferson Davis and the Confederacy,
1:268-74.
12
Quoted in ibid., introduction by Allan Nevins, 1:29.
13
Scandlin, Diaries, 1849-64, AAS.
14
Christian Instructor and Western United Presbyterian,
July 26, 1862.
15
A. W. Bill to a Friend, August 8, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 2, Folder 8, AAS. For further descriptions of the effects of General Orders No. 5, see two articles by Sutherland: “Abraham Lincoln, John Pope, and the Origins of Total War,” 582, and “Introduction to War,” 120-37.
17
Frederick A. Dickinson to George Dickinson, August 27, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 1, Folder 7, AAS.
18
The best examination of Second Manassas is Hennessy,
Return to Bull Run.
19
Jeter, “Notes and Sermons,” Virginia Baptist Historical Society, Richmond.
20
MacDonell, “Sermon on Revelation 21:3-4,” June 8 and July 16, 1862. Manuscripts Collection, Georgia Historical Society.
21
New York Evangelist,
September 11, 1862.
22
Philadelphia Inquirer,
August 18, 1862.
23
Basler,
Collected
Works
of Abraham Lincoln,
5:419-25, 433-36. For a discussion of Lincoln’s “meditation” and its relationship to his “fatalism,” see Donald,
Lincoln,
370-71.
25
Liggett, “Our National Reverses,” printed in Holland, ed.,
Sermons in American History,
250, 253.
26
Henry A. Boardman,
Sovereignty of God,
21-22.
27
Richardson,
Messages and Papers of Jefferson Davis and the Confederacy,
1:268-69.
28
Richmond Daily Whig,
September 18, 1862. On Richmond’s suffering, see Kimball,
Starve or Fall,
119.
29
Jeter, “Sermon on Psalm 126:3,” September 18, 1862, Virginia Baptist Historical Society, Richmond.
30
Tupper’s sermon is reprinted in Holland, ed.,
Sermons in American History,
240-46. On parallel rhetorical themes in the American Revolution, see Stout,
New England Soul,
282-311.
31
For an example of comparable sentiments in the secular press, see
Richmond Daily Dispatch,
September 27, 1862.
32
Livermore,
Numbers and Losses in the Civil War, 47.
16. ANTIETAM: “THE HORRORS OF A BATTLEFIELD”
1
“Give Us Back Our Old Commander,” Union Imprint Song Sheet Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University.
2
To be sure, General in Chief Halleck supported McClellan in this theory as both ran scared of Lee’s and Jackson’s cunning. On the lost orders and McClellan’s tardy response, see McPherson,
Crossroads of Freedom,
106-9.
3
For outstanding analyses of the battle and significance of Antietam, see, in addition to McPherson’s
Crossroads of Freedom,
Sears,
Landscape Turned Red,
and Gallagher,
Antietam.
4
McPherson,
Crossroads of Freedom,
122.
5
Charles Ward to Brother Sammy, September 17, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 2, Folder 6, AAS.
6
On McClellan’s timidity and inability to impose his will on demoralized officers, see Sears,
George
B.
McClellan,
318—23.
7
Livermore,
Numbers and Losses in the Civil War,
92—93.
8
Philadelphia Inquirer,
September 23, 1862.
9
Franklin Bullard to Aunt, October 4, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 2, Folder 8, AAS.
10
Greiner et al.,
Surgeon’s Civil War,
27-28.
11
Bower, “Theology of the Battlefield,” 1019.
17. “BROKEN HEARTS CANNOT BE PHOTOGRAPHED”
1
Photography was a relatively new and nonportable medium in the Civil War. The technology had evolved from the original daguerreotype photograph—remarkably detailed but quite expensive and image-reversed—to the more inexpensive and portable collodion technique that bonded photosensitive chemicals to glass and paper. Though cumbersome to employ, photography had reached the point where shots could be taken outdoors.
2
See Meredith,
Mr. Lincoln’s Camera Man,
54.
3
Brady quoted in Andrews,
The North Reports the Civil War,
88.
5
Quoted in Keith F. Davis, “A Terrible Distinctness,” in Sandweiss,
Photography in Nineteenth Century America,
170.
6
New
York
Times, October 20, 1862, reprinted in Frassanito,
Antietam,
15-16.
7
New York
Times,
October 20, 1862.
8
Gardner’s view of photography was more modern than Brady’s, seeing the image as a form of journalism and current news. Brady, on the other hand, retained a more traditional sense of photography as historical record. As such, Brady was content to arrive at battle scenes days or weeks later, while Gardner rushed to be immediately on the scene.
9
No equivalent to Brady or Gardner existed in the South. There simply were not the extra engravers and paper to allow for such a luxury. See William F. Thompson,
Image of War,
23, 91-93.
10
Frassanito,
Gettysburg,
190.
11
William F. Thompson,
Image of War,
89.
12
On the slow evolution of fine arts in the Civil War, see Holzer and Neely,
Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory,
introduction.
13
For a comprehensive overview of Homer and the Civil War, see Marc Simpson,
Winslow Homer.
On the avoidance of tragedy in his paintings, see Lloyd Goodrich,
Winslow Homer,
20.
14
Christopher Kent Wilson, “Marks of Honor and Death,” in Marc Simpson,
Winslow Homer,
28.
15
Henry Joslin to Mother, July 20, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 1, Folder 8, AAS. Joslin would later die of disease in a Union hospital.
16
Stevens,
Berdan’s United States Sharpshooters,
368.
17
Christopher Kent Wilson, “Marks of Honor and Death,” 37, 38.
19
LeBeau,
Currier
&
Ives: America Imagined,
72.
20
Ibid., 73. The firm of Kurz and Allison rivaled Currier & Ives as Civil War lithographers and chromolithographers and pursued exactly the same heroic themes.
21
For other examples of bayonet charges in Currier & Ives lithographs (all at the American Antiquarian Society) see
The Battle of Gettysburg
(1863),
The Battle of Baton Rouge
(1862), and
The Battle of Malvern Hill
(1862). Of about 245,000 wounds treated by surgeons in Federal hospitals, fewer than 1,000 were from bayonets or sabers. But this statistic does not address the psychological impact that drawn bayonets continued to impose in the Civil War. See Nosworthy,
Bloody Crucible of Courage,
598.
18. “ALL WHO DIE FOR COUNTRY NOW, DIE ALSO FOR HUMANITY”
1
Quoted in Donald,
Lincoln,
364. Donald goes on to demonstrate how Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation was motivated at least in part to “undercut the congressional initiative for emancipation by acting first, ”365.
2
The literature on slavery and emancipation during the Civil War is immense. For primary sources, the best compilation is
Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation,
the ongoing series of edited documents from the National Archives, edited by Berlin, Fields, Miller, Reidy, and Rowland. Major secondary works include Franklin,
Emancipation Proclamation;
Litwack,
Been in the Storm So Long;
McPherson,
Struggle for Equality;
Klingaman,
Abraham Lincoln and the Road to Emancipation;
and, most recently, Guelzo,
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation.
3
Berlin et al.,
Freedom, series
1, vol. 1,
Destruction of Slavery,
275.
4
Lincoln’s technical objection to the Second Confiscation Act was over the issue of whether Congress had the right to legislate over states. In his view, only the commander in chief could exercise such powers under the war powers of the chief executive. But to see his prior interests in limited emancipation through, he held his tongue and signed the act.
5
Guelzo,
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation,
153.
6
Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation is reprinted in Delbanco,
Portable Abraham Lincoln,
271-73.
7
See Berlin, “Destruction of Slavery,” in Berlin et al.,
Slaves No More,
40.
8
Randall,
Civil War and Reconstruction,
495.
9
Basler,
Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings,
666—88; quotation at 685.
10
Moses Smith,
Our Nation Not Forsaken,
11.
11
Richmond Daily Dispatch, September 30, 1862.
12
William C. Davis,
Jefferson Davis,
495.
13
Southern Illustrated News,
January 12, 1863;
Augusta Weekly Constitutionalist,
October 8, 1862.
14
Coulter,
Confederate States of America,
266.
15
Christian Recorder,
June 28, 1862.
16
Southern Illustrated News,
October 18, 1862.
17
William Williams,
Of the Birth and Death of Nations,
19, 21, 31. The unnamed source may have been Lincoln’s war ethicist Francis Lieber.
18
Dwinell,
Hope for Our Country,
16, 12-13. See also Joseph P. Thompson,
Christianity and Emancipation,
67: ”Emancipation is not abolition.... There are those whose opposition to slavery did not originate in a military necessity. For one, I am opposed to slavery because I am a Christian—a member of that anti-slavery society of which He who came to preach liberty to the captive is the founder and head.” The same point was made in Hodgman,
Nation’s Sin and Punishment
(New York, 1864), 206: ”We have, as a nation, done what was right, but not because it was right.... But nevertheless, since the act of Justice, and right and humanity has been passed, and there is an end of slavery, we will say that we are satisfied—that we are thankful!
19
Sumner,
Emancipation!
6-7, 23.
21
Shedd,
Union and the War,
32, 39. See also Spear,
Duty of the Hour,
9.
22
Philip Foner,
Frederick Douglass Selected Speeches and Writings,
549.
23
Page,
Speech of Moses B. Page,
10.
24
Samuel Cox,
Emancipation and Its Results,
7.
25
Tyson,
Institution of Slavery,
191-92.
26
Henry Joslin to Mother, July 20, 1862, Civil War Papers, Box 1, Folder 8, AAS.
27
The Illinois State Legislature resolution is reprinted in Commager,
Civil War Archive,
579.
28
Berlin, “Destruction of Slavery,” 68.
29
Quoted in Campbell,
When Sherman Marched North from the Sea,
65.
30
Masur,
“The Real War Will Never Get in the Books,”
12.
31
Spectator
(London), October 11, 1862. Among American historians, a similar argument may be found in Hofstadter’s classic
American Political Tradition,
132-33.
33
Library of Freedom,
Life and Times of Frederick Douglass,
345, 344.
34
Christian Recorder,
January 3, 1863.
35
Marshall’s letter is reprinted in Berlin et al., Free at Last, 85.
36
Banks,
Emancipated Labor in Louisiana,
8, 23. For similar sentiments, see Seebohm,
The Crisis of Emancipation in America,
30: “The middle passage out of slavery, here as elsewhere, is one of trial and suffering; but it is short in duration, and the negro emerges out of it with a fair capacity for freedom, and a fair chance of success as a free citizen.”