Authors: T. Colin Campbell
8.
Esselstyn et al., “A Strategy to Arrest and Reverse.”
9.
C. B. Esselstyn, Jr., “Updating a 12-year Experience with Arrest and Reversal Therapy for Coronary Heart Disease (An Overdue Requiem for Palliative Cardiology),”
American Journal of Cardiology
84 (August 1, 1999): 339-341.
10.
Miranda Hitti, “FDA Approves New Angina Drug: Ranexa Is for Patients Who Haven’t Responded to Other Chest Pain Drugs,” WebMD, February 7, 2006,
http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/news/20060207/fda-approves-new-angina-drug
.
11.
You can find the exact number of data points that
are
required in the appendix of any sufficiently sophisticated statistics textbook. The main point here is that Esselstyn’s study, with its remarkably profound results, could be accomplished with small numbers, while most drug trials cannot.
1.
T. V. Madhavan and C. Gopalan, “The Effect of Dietary Protein on Carcinogenesis of Aflatoxin,”
Archives of Pathology
85, no. 2 (February 1968): 133-37.
2.
Gerardus Johannes Mulder, “On the Composition of Some Animal Substances,”
Journal für praktische Chemie
16 (1839): 129-52 (the paper where he named protein, according to H. N. Munro in
Mammalian protein metabolism,
Vol. I, eds. H. N. Munro and J. B. Allison, Academic Press (1964): 1-29); Gerardus Johannes Mulder,
The Chemistry of Vegetable & Animal Physiology,
trans. P.F.G. Fromberg (Edinburgh, Scotland: W. Blackwood & Sons, 1849).
3.
D. A. Schulsinger, M. M. Root, and T. C. Campbell, “Effect of Dietary Protein Quality on Development of Aflatoxin B1-Induced Hepatic Preneoplastic Lesions,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
81 (1989): 1241-1245.
4.
L. D. Youngman, “Recall, Memory, Persistence, and the Sequential Modulation of Preneoplastic Lesion Development by Dietary Protein,” Cornell University: Masters Thesis (1987, T. C. Campbell, mentor).
5.
G. E. Dunaif and T. C. Campbell, “Relative Contribution of Dietary Protein Level and Aflatoxin B1 Dose in Generation of Presumptive Preneoplastic Foci in Rat Liver,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
78 (1987): 365-69; L. D. Youngman and T. C. Campbell, “Inhibition of Aflatoxin B
1
-Induced Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase Positive (GGT+) Hepatic Preneoplastic Foci and Tumors by Low Protein Diets: Evidence That Altered GGT+ Foci Indicate Neoplastic Potential,”
Carcinogenesis
13, no. 9 (1992): 1607-13.
6.
J. Chen, T. C. Campbell, J. Li, and R. Peto,
Diet, Life-Style and Mortality in China. A study of the characteristics of 65 Chinese counties
(Oxford, United Kingdom; Ithaca, NY; and Beijing, People’s Republic of China: Oxford University Press, Cornell University Press, and People’s Medical Publishing House, 1990).
7.
M. F. Muldoon, S. B. Manuck, and K. A. Matthews, “Lowering Cholesterol Concentrations and Mortality: A Quantitative Review of Primary Prevention Trials,”
BMJ
301, no. 6747 (1990): 309-14.
8.
G. N. Stemmermann, A. M. Nomura, L. K. Heilbrun, E. S. Pollack, and A. Kagan, “Serum Cholesterol and Colon Cancer Incidence in Hawaiian Japanese Men,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
67, no. 6 (1981): 1179-82.
9.
Madhavan and Gopalan, “The Effect of Dietary Protein on Carcinogenesis.”
10.
T. V. Madhavan and C. Gopalan, “Effect of Dietary Protein on Aflatoxin Liver Injury in Weanling Rats,”
Archives of Pathology
80 (August 1965): 123-26.
1.
David Foster Wallace, “David Foster Wallace, In His Own Words,”
More Intelligent Life,
September 19, 2008,
http://moreintelligentlife.com/story/david-foster-wallace-in-his-own-words
.
1.
I still remember my final oral examination for my master’s degree at Cornell in 1956, in which I was supposed to name each of the then-known amino acids and their chemical structures. I wasn’t able to, and they nearly failed me. I still don’t know them all by heart, even though I taught this stuff for years!
2.
R. S. Preston, J. R. Hayes, and T. C. Campbell, “The Effect of Protein Deficiency on the In Vivo Binding of Aflatoxin B1 to Rat Liver Macromolecules,”
Life Sciences
19, no. 8 (October 15, 1976): 1191-98.
3.
K. D. Mainigi and T. C. Campbell, “Subcellular Distribution and Covalent Binding of Aflatoxins as Functions of Dietary Manipulation,”
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health
6 (1980): 659-671.
4.
“MonaVie: Discover the Beat of a Healthy Heart,” Monavie.com, accessed December 2, 2012,
http://www.monavie.com/products/health-juices/monavie-pulse
.
5.
Office of Dietary Supplements, “Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Multivitamin / mineral Supplements,” accessed December 2, 2012,
http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/MVMS-HealthProfessional
.
6.
K. S. Kubena and D. N. McMurray, “Nutrition and the Immune System: A Review of Nutrient-Nutrient Interactions,”
Journal of the American Dietetic Association
96 (1996): 1156-1164.
7.
T. C. Campbell and J. R. Hayes, “Role of Nutrition in the Drug Metabolizing System,”
Pharmacological Reviews
26 (1974): 171-197.
8.
N. W. Tietz,
Textbook of Clinical Chemistry
(Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co, 1986).
1.
The placebo effect, whereby patients get better because they believe they will, is one of most powerful documented interventions ever studied. Some researchers believe that fully 30 percent of the effect of any intervention is attributable to the self-fulfilling prophecy of patients improving because they think they’ve taken a powerful drug.
1.
T. C. Campbell and J. R. Hayes, “Role of Nutrition in the Drug Metabolizing Enzyme System,”
Pharmacological Reviews
26, no. 3 (September 1974): 171-97; T. C. Campbell and J. R. Hayes, “The Role of Aflatoxin in Its Toxic Lesion,”
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
35, no. 2 (February 1976): 199-222.
2.
In this chapter, I’ve used AF as a generic description for all of the aflatoxin group, but my work largely dealt with AFB1, the most common and the most carcinogenic of the group.
3.
K. Sargeant, A. Sheridan, J. O’Kelly, and R. B. A. Carnaghan, “Toxicity Associated with Certain Samples of Groundnuts,”
Nature
192 (1961): 1096-97.
4.
M. C. Lancaster, F. P. Jenkins, and J. M. Philp, “Toxicity Associated with Certain Samples Of Groundnuts,”
Nature
192 (1961): 1095-96; W. H. Butler and J. M. Barnes, “Toxic Effects of Groundnut Meal Containing Aflatoxin to Rats and Guinea Pigs,”
British Journal of Cancer
17, no. 4 (1964): 699-710; G. N. Wogan and P. M. Newberne, “Dose-Response Characteristics of Aflatoxin B1 Carcinogenesis in the Rat,”
Cancer Research
27, no. 12 (December 1967): 2370-76.
5.
Lancaster et al., “Toxicity”; Butler and Barnes, “Toxic Effects.”
6.
T. C. Campbell, J. P. Caedo Jr., J. Bulatao-Jayme, L. Salamat, and R. W. Engel, “Aflatoxin M1 in Human Urine,”
Nature
227 (1970): 403-4.
7.
T. C. Campbell and L. A. Salamat, “Aflatoxin Ingestion and Excretion by Humans,” in
Mycotoxins in Human Health,
ed. I. F. Purchase (London: Macmillan, 1971): 263-69.
8.
T. C. Campbell, “Present Day Knowledge on Aflatoxin,”
Philippine Journal of Nutrition
20 (1967): 193-201.
9.
Ibid.
The practical message if you’re looking to avoid AF, by the way, is that when you’re shelling peanuts for your own consumption, you should throw away the shriveled, discolored kernels.
10.
Urine samples are generally a more reliable estimate of AF consumption than asking people what they’ve eaten. People forget, under- and overestimate quantities, and sometimes “improve” their families’ diets to impress the questioner, a problem all too common in many dietary surveys.
11.
Campbell et al., “Aflatoxin M1 in Human Urine”; T. C. Campbell, R. O. Sinnhuber, D. J. Lee, J. H. Wales, and L. A. Salamat, “Brief Communication: Hepatocarcinogenic Material in Urine Specimens from Humans Consuming Aflatoxin,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
52 (1974): 1647-49.
12.
Campbell et al., “Brief Communication.”
13.
Ibid.
This test system was run by Dr. Russell Sinnhuber at Oregon State University.
14.
Wogan and Newberne, “Dose-Response Characteristics”; R. S. Portman, K. M. Plowman, and T. C. Campbell, “On Mechanisms Affecting Species Susceptibility to Aflatoxin,”
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
208, no. 3 (June 1970): 487-95.
15.
Portman et al., “On Mechanisms Affecting Species.”
16.
R. Allcroft and R. B. A. Carnaghan, “Groundnut Toxicity: And Examination for Toxin in Human Food Products from Animals Fed Toxic Groundnut Meal,”
Veterinary Record
75 (1963): 259-63.
17.
A. H. Conney, “Pharmacological Implications of Microsomal Enzyme Induction,”
Pharmacological Reviews
19 (1967): 317-66.
18.
M. Maso, “Decrease in Mixed Function Oxidase Activity in Rat Liver Over Time,” Cornell University: Undergraduate Honors Thesis (1979, T. C. Campbell, mentor).
19.
Madhavan and Gopalan, “Effect of Dietary Protein on Carcinogenesis.”
20.
W. L. Elliot, “Bioenergetics: Pathways of Human Energy Metabolism,”
HealthBuilding.com
,
http://www.healthbuilding.com/metabolism.htm
. A full color version of this image is available for purchase in poster size at
HealthBuilding.com
.
21.
R. L. Lewis,
The Unity of the Sciences Volume One: Do Proteins Teleport in an RNA World?
(New York: International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences, 2005).
22.
Madhavan and Gopalan, “The Effect of Dietary Protein on Carcinogenesis.”
23.
Madhavan and Gopalan, “Effect of Dietary Protein on Aflatoxin”; Madhavan and Gopalan, “Effect of Dietary Protein on Carcinogenesis.”
24.
J. R. Hayes, M. U. K. Mgbodile, and T. C. Campbell, “Effect of Protein Deficiency on the Inducibility of the Hepatic Microsomal Drug-metabolizing Enzyme System. I. Effect on Substrate Interaction with Cytochrome P-450,”
Biochemical Pharmacology
22 (1973): 1005-14; M. U. K. Mgbodile, J. R. Hayes, and T. C. Campbell, “Effect of Protein Deficiency on the Inducibility of the Hepatic Microsomal Drug-metabolizing Enzyme System. II. Effect on Enzyme Kinetics and Electron Transport System,”
Biochemical Pharmacology
22 (1973): 1125-32; J. R. Hayes and T.C. Campbell, “Effect of Protein Deficiency on the Inducibility of the Hepatic Microsomal Drug-metabolizing Enzyme System. III. Effect of 3-Methylcholanthrene Induction on Activity and Binding Kinetics,”
Biochemical Pharmacology
23 (1974): 1721-32.
25.
Madhavan and Gopalan, “The Effect of Dietary Protein on Carcinogenesis.”
26.
R. C. Garner, E. C. Miller, J. A. Miller, J. V. Garner, and R. S. Hanson, “Formation of a Factor Lethal for
S. Typhimurium
TA1530 and TA1531 on Incubation of Aflatoxin B
1
with Rat Liver Microsomes,”
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
45 (1971): 774-80.
27.
W. P. Doherty and T. C. Campbell, “Aflatoxin Inhibition of Rat Liver Mitochondria,”
Chemical and Biological Interactions
7 (1973): 63-77.
28.
J. R. Hayes, M. U. K. Mgbodile, A. H. Merrill Jr., L. S. Nerurkar, and T. C. Campbell, “The Effect of Dietary Protein Depletion and Repletion on Rat Hepatic Mixed Function Oxidase Activities,”
Journal of Nutrition
108 (1978): 1788-97; L. S. Nerurkar, J. R. Hayes, and T. C. Campbell, “The Reconstitution of Hepatic Microsomal Mixed Function Oxidase Activity with Fractions Derived from Weanling Rats Fed Different Levels of Protein,”
Journal of Nutrition
108 (1978): 678-86.
29.
J. R. Hayes et al., “Effect of Dietary Protein”; L. S. Nerurkar et al., “Mixed Function Oxidase Activity”; Preston et al., “Effect of Protein Deficiency I.”
30.
A. A. Adekunle, J. R. Hayes, and T. C. Campbell, “Interrelationships of Dietary Protein Level, Aflatoxin B
1
Metabolism, and Hepatic Microsomal Epoxide Hydrase Activity,”
Life Sciences
21 (1977): 1785-92.
31.
K. D. Mainigi and T. C. Campbell, “Effects of Low Dietary Protein and Dietary Aflatoxin on Hepatic Glutathione Levels in F-344 Rats,”
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
59 (1981): 196-203.
1.
The importance of medical hygiene was known to midwives for centuries, but only made its way into the medical establishment after Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, Edward Jenner, and others demonstrated the existence of microbes and the mechanisms of contagion. That’s another pitfall of reductionism: Until scientists have the means to isolate and measure things, they insist those things don’t and can’t exist, and anyone who says otherwise is ignorant and superstitious.
2.
John Markoff, “Cost of Gene Sequencing Falls, Raising Hopes for Medical Advances,”
New York Times,
March 7, 2012,
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/08/technology/cost-of-gene-sequencing-falls-raising-hopes-for-medical-advances.html
.
3.
Ibid.
4.
Having four letters that can form only two base pair types (A-T or G-C) may not sound like it can generate very many word possibilities, but a string just two base pairs long can be arranged in sixteen different sequences, while a string comprising four base pairs can be arranged in sixty-four such sequences. In addition, each base pair can theoretically be used in sequence an unlimited number of times. Imagine, for example, eight to ten successive units of one letter, say, followed by one or a few units of a second, maybe a couple more of the first, one of a third, and several units of a fourth. The possible combinations are close to infinite.