statistical mechanics 116
Stoney, George 10
stop squarks 263, 265
Stoppard, Tom:
Hapgood
159, 160
string balls 380
string coupling 311, 314, 315–16, 320, 331
string theory 5–6, 65, 68, 238, 277–302, 447
and anomalies 290–91
and branes/brane-worlds 6, 51, 57, 58–9, 61, 83, 304, 306, 322, 323
difficulty in testing 69, 74, 296–302
distinguished by its heavier particles 285
duality in 310, 330, 449
earlier version with twenty-six dimensions 289
fermionic 261, 262
and general relativity 68, 278
and the graviton 281, 287, 288
of gravity 5, 33, 69, 287, 288
of hadrons 285–8
IIA theory 313
and model building 68, 71–4, 82–3
and nature 68
new low-mass particles 298
origins 285–8
and particles 5–6, 68, 69, 75
and Planck scale energy 145
and extra dimensions 16, 33, 69–70, 74
principles and equations 67–8
and quantum mechanics 5, 33, 68
and the Standard Model 297, 300, 322
and supersymmetry 260
and tachyons 286, 287, 289
ten-dimensional 292, 313
“Theory of Everything” 293, 297
strings
closed 283, 284–5,
284
, 306, 327, 451
defined 283
five-dimensional 411
the fundamental objects of the world 283, 302
heterotic 291–2, 296–7, 330, 331
new heavy string particles 298
open 283, 284,
284
, 306, 320, 323, 325, 327
oscillation 284–5,
284
, 293, 294, 295, 309, 330
softer high-energy collisions 288
strongly interacting 311, 313
tension 294–5, 311
TeV-mass 407
weakly interacting 311, 313, 315
zero-length 478n33
Strings ’95 conference, University of Southern California 313, 316
Strings 2002 conference 261
Strominger, Andy 293, 298, 309–10, 435
strong force 78, 156, 161,
168
, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 196, 475n16
binding of the nucleus 366
and gluons 200, 232
and GUT 233
internal symmetries 197
strength as a function of distance/energy 233, 235, 270,
272
and supersymmetry 262
and symmetry 201
structure 75–6
substructure 76, 77
Sun 101, 111, 162–3, 308, 367, 376
Sundrum, Raman 6, 237, 329, 332, 337–9, 342, 345, 346, 347, 386, 389, 390, 395, 402, 419–22, 428, 429, 431, 437, 440, 441, 449
Supercollider (SSC) 257
superconductors 147
superfluids 147
supergravity theory 260, 262
eleven-dimensional 304, 313–20, 331, 452
supernovae 162, 299, 376
superpartners 258, 263–70,
264
, 273–6, 344, 345, 457
masses 344, 345, 346, 370
superspace 261–2
superstring theory
birth of 262, 286
and branes 304
candidate for the real world 260, 286–7
dual to eleven-dimensional
supergravity at low energies 313–20, 331
five apparently distinct theories 316
second superstring revolution (1995) 308
superstring revolution (1984) 278, 288–93
and supersymmetry 258–260
ten-dimensional 289, 291, 292, 304, 313–20, 331
see also
M-theory
supersymmetric models 237
supersymmetry 149, 254, 256–76, 382, 383, 435
bosonic and fermionic superpartners 257–60, 261–70,
264
, 273–6
broken 178, 266–7, 271–5, 276, 340, 343–4, 349
and Calabi-Yau manifolds 293
in an extra-dimensional context 335
flavor problem 272–5, 276
and the hierarchy problem 264–6, 270, 275–6, 336
present in fermionic string theory 262
and sequestering 343–8
and string theory 295
and superstring theory 258, 262, 270
supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model 262–4, 291
two-dimensional 261
and unification of forces 270, 404
weighing the evidence 270–75
supersymmetry-breaking models 335, 338,
338
sequestered 346, 347, 349, 350, 370, 386
Susskind, Lenny 452–3
symmetry 190–204
anomaly-free 290
broken 191, 201, 203, 204, 220, 242, 249, 300–301;
see also
spontaneous symmetry breaking
electroweak 218, 219, 241, 242, 244, 249, 265, 409
flavor 195, 196
and forces 197–202
importance in physical laws 193
interchanging parts 191–2
internal symmetries 194–6, 199–201, 202, 208, 210, 211, 215, 217
perfect 203, 204
reflection 191, 192
rotational 191, 192, 199, 201, 202, 215, 216,
216
, 476n19
transformations 192, 201, 202, 215, 257, 325
using theories to make physical predictions 193–4
weak force 212, 214, 215–17, 220
symmetry-violating interactions 342
’t Hooft, Gerard 232
T-duality 450–51
tachyons 286, 287, 288, 289
Taj Mahal, India 192, 203–4
Takeuchi, Takeo 188
tau neutrinos 176
tau 79, 176, 273
Taylor, Richard 174
Terning, John 409
tesseracts 20, 104
TeV (teraelectronvolt) 181, 242, 269, 302, 365, 378, 379–80, 384, 401, 407–12
TeV-brane 401n
Tevatron 181, 186, 189, 269, 346, 378
Texas A&M 315
theories, defined 66
“Theory of Everything” (“TOE”) 293, 297
theory of forces
and false predictions 198, 202, 209
internal symmetries in 195, 197, 199, 200, 201
and massless gauge bosons 191, 208, 209
thermodynamics 72, 73
Thomson, J.J.
identifies electrons 126
“plum pudding” model 126, 127
Thomson, William
see
Lord Kelvin
thought experiments 67
three dimensions 15, 16, 24, 27
baby’s three-dimensional world 1–2,
1
,
472
translating three dimensions from two 21–5,
26
, 27–8
tidal effect 188
time
coordination 90–91
as a fourth dimension 17, 33, 414n
rescaling 417n
and special relativity 90, 91, 92
warped 110
time dilation 91, 94, 113, 387
time-energy uncertainty principle 140
Tomonaga, Sin-Itiro 156–7
Tonamura, Akira 135–6
totalitarian principle 228n
Townsend, Paul 313, 315, 316
transverse polarizations 198
triggers 182
truth 67, 68
two dimensions 16
translating two dimensions to three 21–5,
26
, 27–8
Tye, Henry 329
ultraviolet catastrophe 120, 121
uncertainty principle 117, 137–42, 143, 144, 145, 149, 169, 207, 235n, 294, 356
time-energy 140
and virtual particles 222, 226
unified theory 66, 67, 71
see also
Grand Unified Theory
universe 102–3, 111–12, 122–3, 217, 234, 282, 298–9, 403, 422
multidimensional 54–5, 332, 352, 404, 434
see also
cosmology
vacuum energy 298
University of Barcelona 404
University of California at Berkeley 187, 346
University of Chicago 435
University of Maryland 346
University of Minnesota 435
University of Pisa 346
University of Texas 306
University of Washington 365, 374–5
Uranus 85
vacuum 158, 213, 214, 218, 226, 229, 231, 238, 241
energy 298–9, 300
see also
cosmological constant; dark energy
valence, Mendeleev and 9
van der Meer, Simon 186
violin strings 354, 355
virtual particles 225–32, 238, 252
and the anarchic principle 340
as bureaucrats 229–31, 248
a consequence of quantum mechanics 222, 225
defined 225–7, 238
and distance/energy dependence 222, 231, 234, 227–9
and energy 225, 226, 227, 229
heavy (GUT-mass) 247, 248
indirect interactions 228, 229
as intermediate or internal particles 157
measurable consequences 226
and paths 229, 246, 248
in quantum field theory 225
renormalization group calculations 228–9
and the strong force 232
symmetry violations 290
Waldram, Dan 332
warp factors 390–91, 400, 401
warped extra-dimensional models 237
warped geometry 2, 6, 110, 347, 386, 387, 390
and duality 449–50
five-dimensional 418n, 436
hierarchy problem solved 394–7, 402–4, 406, 458
and an infinite dimension 420
and the KK particles’ masses 407
and the Large Hadron Collider 407
unification of forces in 404
see also
locally localized gravity, RS1, RS2
wave-particle duality 136
wavefunction 131, 148
collapse of the 139
of individual electrons 132, 133, 135
of particles 134–5, 143
see also
probability function
wavelength
and momentum 131
of orbiting electrons 128–9,
129
waves
associated with every photon 197
the constant wave 355
oscillations 197–8,
197
, 200
probability 148, 355, 356, 357
sound 100
weak charges 163, 212, 213, 214
weak force 78, 144, 156, 161n, 162, 165, 168,
168
, 174, 176n, 242, 475
and beta decay
166
and GUT 233
parity violation 293
restricted range 207, 213
strength as a function of energy 231, 235, 270,
272