The Red Flag: A History of Communism (109 page)

36
. G. Peteri,
Effects of World War I: War Communism in Hungary
(New York, 1984), ch.1.

37
. T. Hajdu,
The Hungarian Soviet Republic
, trans. E. De Láczay and R. Fischer (Budapest, 1979).

38
. Tökés,
Béla Kun
, p.185.

39
. A. Gramsci, ‘Unions and Councils’,
L’Ordine Nuovo
, 25 October 1919, in Gramsci,
Selections
, pp.98–108.

40
. See R. Bellamy and D. Schecter,
Gramsci and the Italian State
(Manchester, 1993), p.24.

41
. E. Weitz,
Creating German Communism, 1890
–
1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State
(Princeton, 1997), pp.179–80.

42
. W. Preston,
Aliens and Dissenters. Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903
–
1933
(Cambridge, Mass., 1963), pp.118–50.

43
. B. Brecht, ‘The Decision’, in
Collected Plays
, trans. and ed. John Willett (London, 1997), vol. iii, pp.61–91.

44
. R. Fischer,
Stalin and German Communism: a Study in the Origins of the State Party
(Cambridge, Mass., 1948), p.615.

45
. M. Molnár,
From Béla Kun to János Kádár. Seventy Years of Hungarian Communism,
trans. A. J. Pomerans (New York, 1990), pp.20–1.

46
. V. Lenin,
Selected Works
[
SW
] (Moscow, 1977), vol. iii, p.293.

47
. Riddell,
Workers of the World
, vol. i, pp.299–300.

48
. See Bartolini,
Political Mobilization
, pp.107, 112–13.

49
. Cited in F. Claudin,
The Communist Movement. From Comintern to Cominform
(Harmondsworth, 1975), p.63.

50
. For Moscow’s role, see L. Babichenko, ‘Komintern i sobytiia v Germanii v 1923 g. Novye arkhivnye materialy’,
Novaia i noveishaia istoriia
2 (1994), pp.125–57.

51
. J. Degras (ed.),
The Communist International, 1919
–
1943. Documents, Vol. 2
(London, 1971), p.154.

52
. I. Stalin,
Sochineniia
(Moscow, 1946–1951), vol. x, p.51.

53
. The literature is enormous. For views, based on archival sources, that stress central control, see for instance, A. Vatlin,
Komintern: Pervye desiat’ let: istoricheskie ocherki
(Moscow, 1993); for those that emphasize local politics rather than Moscow, see A. Thorpe,
The British Communist Party and Moscow between the Wars
(Manchester, 2000). For a useful survey of the historiography, see
Labour History Review
61 (2003).

54
. This is argued in K.-M. Mallmann,
Kommunisten in der Weimarer Republik. Sozialgeschichte einer revolutionären Bewegung
(Darmstadt, 1996).

55
. For these subventions, see H. Klehr, J. Haynes and F. Firsov (eds.),
The Secret World of American Communism
(New Haven, 1995), pp.23–5; K. McDermott, ‘The View from the Centre’, in T. Rees and A. Thorpe (eds.),
International Communism and the Communist International, 1919
–
1943
(Manchester, 1998), p.33. It has been estimated that the British Communist Party received an initial grant of £55,000 (or £1 million in 1995 money), F. Becket,
Enemy Within. The Rise and Fall of the British Communist Party
(London, 1995), p.12.

56
. For the argument that some European Communists welcomed Soviet control, see McDermott and Agnew,
The Comintern
, pp.24–5.

57
. For this institution, see R. von Mayenburg,
Hotel Lux
(Munich, 1978).

58
. V. Dedijer,
Tito
(New York, 1972), p.98.

59
. B. Lazitch, ‘Les Écoles de Cadres du Comintern’, in J. Freymond,
Contributions à l’historie du Comintern
(Geneva, 1965), pp.237–41, 246–51; Weitz,
Creating German Communism
, pp.234–5. See also L. Babischenko, ‘Die Kaderschulung der Komintern’, in H. Weber (ed.),
Jahrbuch für historische Kommunismusforschung
(Berlin, 1993).

60
. Cited in J. McIlroy, A. Campbell, B. McLoughlin and J. Halstead, ‘Forging the Faithful. The British at the International Lenin School’,
Labour History Review
68 (2003), p.110. See also L. Babischenko. ‘Die Kaderschulung der Komintern’.

61
. W. Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, trans. C. M. Woodhouse (London, 1979), p.185.

62
. Ibid., pp.194–5.

63
. Ibid.

64
. McIlroy et al
.
, ‘Forging the Faithful’, pp.112–16.

65
. McDermott and Agnew,
The Comintern
, pp.73–4.

66
. A. Thorpe, ‘Comintern “Control” of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1920–43’,
English Historical Review
113 (1998), p.652.

67
. Weitz argues for the influence of the old Luxemburgist radicalism in
Creating German Communism
. For puritanism in Britain, see K. Morgan, G. Cohen and A. Flinn,
Communists and British Society 1920
–
1991
(London, 2003), pp.123–9.

68
. Ibid., p.235.

69
. A. Kriegel,
The French Communists: Profile of a People
, trans. E. Halperin (Chicago, 1972), p.107.

70
. For this phenomenon, see S. Macintyre,
Little Moscows. Communism and Working-Class Militancy in Inter-War
Britain (London, 1980). E. Rosenhaft, ‘Communists and Communities: Britain and Germany between the Wars’,
Historical Journal
26 (1983), pp.221–36. On culture, see A. Howkins, ‘“Class against Class”. The Political Culture of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1930–1935’, in F. Gloversmith (ed.),
Class, Culture and Social Change. A New View of the 1930s
(Brighton, 1980).

71
. Report on factory groups, 1925, cited in Morgan et al.,
Communists and British Society
, p.63.

72
. S. Berger,
Social Democracy and the Working Class in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Germany
(Harlow, 2000), pp.104–5; K. Schönhoven,
Reformismus und Radikalismus. Gespaltene Arbeiterbewegung im Weimarer Sozialstaat
(Munich, 1989).

73
. Weitz,
Creating German Communism
, pp.270–1.

74
. E. Weitz,
Popular Communism: Political Strategies and Social Histories in the Formation of the German, French, and Italian Communist Parties, 1919
–
1948
(Ithaca, 1992), p.11.

75
. For these themes, see Weitz,
Creating German Communism
, ch.6.

76
. Ibid., p.249. For another view that emphasizes the overlap between Communist and Nazi messages, see Conan Fischer,
The German Communists and the Rise of Nazism
(New York, 1991).

77
. E. Rosenhaft, ‘Working-Class Life and Working-Class Politics: Communists, Nazis and the State in the Battle for the Streets, Berlin, 1928–1932’, in R. Bessel and E. Feuchtwanger (eds.),
Social Change and Political Development in Weimar Germany
(London, 1981); E. Rosenhaft,
Beating the Fascists? The German Communists and Political Violence
(Cambridge, 1983).

78
. ‘America’s “New” Civilization’,
New York Times
, 13 May 1928.

79
. D. Aldcroft,
From Versailles to Wall Street, 1919
–
1929
(London, 1977), p.263.

1
.
Oktiabr
(1928), dir. S. Eisenstein.

2
. S. Eisenstein, ‘Perspectives’, 1929, in
Film Essays
, ed. Jay Leyda (London, 1968), p.44.

3
. Quoted in Y. Barna,
Eisenstein
(London, 1973), p.119.

4
. R. Bergman,
Sergei Eisenstein. A Life in Conflict
(London, 1997), p.131.

5
. D. Bordwell,
The Cinema of Eisenstein
(Cambridge, Mass., 1993), pp.79–96.

6
. A. Rieber, ‘Stalin as Georgian’, in S. Davies and J. Harris (eds.),
Stalin. A New History
(Cambridge, 2005), pp.25–6. For the Prometheus legend in Georgia, see D. M. Lang and G. M. Meredith-Owens, ‘Amiran-Darejaniani: A Georgian Romance and its English Rendering’,
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
22 (1959), pp.463–4.

7
. R. Suny, ‘Stalin and the Making of the Soviet Union’, unpublished manuscript, ch.1, p.16. My thanks to Ron Suny for showing me this draft.

8
. I. Stalin,
Sochineniia
(Moscow, 1946–51), vol. xiii, pp.113–14.

9
. P. Makharadze, quoted in S. Jones,
Socialism in Georgian Colours. The European Road to Social Democracy, 1883
–
1917
(Cambridge, Mass., 2005), p.51.

10
. Jones,
Socialism
, pp.22–8.

11
. Suny, ‘Stalin’, pp.11–13.

12
. R. Tucker,
Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929: a Study in History and Personality
(London, 1974), pp.80–1

13
. For this point, see Suny, ‘Stalin’, pp.22–3.

14
. Jones,
Socialism
, ch.2.

15
. M. Kun,
Stalin. An Unknown Portrait
(New York, 2003), pp.31–2.

16
. A. Rieber, ‘Stalin, Man of the Borderlands’,
American Historical Review
106 (2001), pp.1674–6.