Authors: Kent Flannery,Joyce Marcus
484 Our population estimates for the province of Lagash are based on Robert McC. Adams,
Heartland of Cities
(University of Chicago Press, 1981); A. I. Tyumenev, “The Working Personnel of the Estate of the Temple of Ba-U in Lagaš during the Period of Lugalanda and Urukagina”; Igor M. Diakonoff, “Structure of Society and State in Early Dynastic Sumer”; and Jerrold S. Cooper, “Reconstructing History from Ancient Inscriptions: The Lagash-Umma Border Conflict,”
Sources from the Ancient Near East,
vol. 2, fascicle 1 (Undena Publications, Malibu, 1983).
486 For the mythological prologue to the Sumerian kings, see Samuel Noah Kramer,
The Sumerians.
For later kings and dynasties, see Joan Oates,
Babylon: Revised Edition
(Thames and Hudson, 1986), and J. Nicholas Postgate,
Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History
(Routledge, London, 1992). For the royal inscriptions in which Early Dynastic kings claimed hegemony over other provinces, see Jerrold S. Cooper,
Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions, vol. I: Presargonid Inscriptions
(The American Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn., 1986).
487 C. Leonard Woolley,
Ur Excavations 2: The Royal Cemetery
(British Museum, London, and University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia, 1934).
490 Igor M. Diakonoff, “Structure of Society and State in Early Dynastic Sumer”; A. I. Tyumenev, “The Working Personnel of the Estate of the Temple of Ba-U in Lagaš during the Period of Lugalanda and Urukagina” (see previous reference).
491 Samuel Noah Kramer, in
The Sumerians,
documents many cases of Early Dynastic corruption; he, Diakonoff, and Tyumenev also discuss Urukagina’s reforms.
492 Jerrold S. Cooper, “Reconstructing History from Ancient Inscriptions”; Robert McC. Adams,
Heartland of Cities.
494 Brian Lewis, “The Sargon Legend: A Study of the Akkadian Text and the Tale of the Hero Who Was Exposed at Birth,”
Dissertation Series,
no. 4 (American Schools of Oriental Research, Cambridge, Mass., 1980); Joan Oates,
Babylon: Revised Edition;
J. Nicholas Postgate,
Early Mesopotamia;
Samuel Noah Kramer,
The Sumerians.
494 Jerrold S. Cooper and Wolfgang Heimpel, “The Sumerian Sargon Legend,”
Journal of the American Oriental Society
103 (1983): 67–82.
495 Jerrold S. Cooper, in
Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions, vol. I: Presargonid Inscriptions,
provides many examples of Early Dynastic rulers who claimed to control several cities or provinces.
496 J. Nicholas Postgate,
Early Mesopotamia.
496 Sargon’s boast is given by George A. Barton in
Archaeology and the Bible: 3rd Edition
(American Sunday School Union, Philadelphia, 1920).
497 Joan Oates,
Babylon: Revised Edition;
J. Nicholas Postgate,
Early Mesopotamia.
498 Marc van de Mieroop, “Society and Enterprise in Old Babylonian Ur,”
Berliner Beiträge zum Vorderen Orient,
vol. 12 (Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin, 1992).
499 Piotr Michalowski,
The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur
(Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, Ind., 1989).
501 Michael Hudson, “Privatization: A Survey of the Unresolved Controversies,” in Michael Hudson and Baruch A. Levine, eds., “Privatization in the Ancient Near East and Classical World,”
Peabody Museum Bulletin
no. 5 (Harvard University, 1996), 1–32; Michael Hudson, “The Dynamics of Privatization, from the Bronze Age to the Present,” in Michael Hudson and Baruch A. Levine, “Privatization in the Ancient Near East and Classical World,” 33–57.
CHAPTER 23: HOW NEW EMPIRES LEARN FROM OLD
504 William T. Sanders, Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley,
The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization
(Academic Press, New York, 1979); René F. Millon, “Teotihuacan Studies from 1950 to 1990 and Beyond,” in Janet C. Berlo, ed.,
Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan
(Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., 1992), 339–429; Linda Manzanilla, ed.,
Anatomía de un Conjunto Residencial Teotihuacano en Oztoyahualco,
2 vols. (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Mexico City, 1993); Saburo Sugiyama,
Human Sacrifice, Militarism, and Rulership: Materialization of State Ideology at the Feathered Serpent Pyramid, Teotihuacan
(Cambridge University Press, 2005).
505 Kenneth G. Hirth,
Archaeological Research at Xochicalco,
2 vols. (University of Utah Press, 2000); Janet C. Berlo, “Early Writing in Central Mexico,” in Richard A. Diehl and Janet C. Berlo, eds.,
Mesoamerica After the Decline of Teotihuacan, AD 700–900
(Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., 1989), 19–47; Norberto González C. and Silvia Garza T., “Xochicalco,”
Arqueología Mexicana
2 (1994): 70–74.
506 Angel García Cook and Beatriz L. Merino C., “Cantona: Urbe Prehispánica en el Altiplano Central de México,”
Latin American Antiquity
9 (1998): 191–216.
506 Diana López de Molina and Daniel Molina,
Cacaxtla
(Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City, 1980); Claudia Brittenham, “The Cacaxtla Painting Tradition: Art and Identity in Epiclassic Mexico” (PhD diss., Yale University, 2008); Ellen T. Baird, “Stars and War at Cacaxtla,” in Richard A. Diehl and Janet C. Berlo,
Mesoamerica After the Decline of Teotihuacan, AD 700–900,
105–122 (see previous reference).
507 Clara Díaz,
Chingú: Un Sitio Clásico del Área de Tula, Hgo.
(Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City, 1980); Alba Guadalupe Mastache and Robert H. Cobean, “The Coyotlatelco Culture and the Origins of the Toltec State,” in Richard A. Diehl and Janet C. Berlo, eds.,
Mesoamerica After the Decline of Teotihuacan, AD 700–900,
49–67.
507 Francisco del Paso y Troncoso,
Papeles de Nueva Espana: Segunda Serie, Geografía y Estadística,
7 vols. (Tipográfico “Sucesores de Rivadeneyra,” Madrid, 1905–1906); René Acuña, ed.,
Relaciones Geográficas del Siglo XVI,
9 vols. (Universidad Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 1984–1987).
507 For Jiménez Moreno’s key suggestion that the site of Tula (in the state of Hidalgo) was the Toltec capital, see Wigberto Jiménez Moreno, “Tula y Los Toltecas Según Las Fuentes Históricas,”
Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropológicos
5 (1941): 79–83, and “La Migración Mexica,”
Atti del XL Congresso Internazionale Degli Americanisti
1 (1973): 163–173. Also see Lawrence H. Feldman, “Tollan in Hidalgo: Native Accounts of the Central Mexican Tolteca,” in Richard A. Diehl, ed., “Studies of Ancient Tollan: A Report of the University of Missouri Tula Archaeological Project,”
Monograph
1 (University of Missouri, 1974), 130–149.
508 The story of Mixcoatl and Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is discussed in Henry B. Nicholson, “Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl of Tollan: A Problem in Mesoamerican Ethnohistory” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1957); Lawrence H. Feldman, “Tollan in Hidalgo: Native Accounts of the Central Mexican Tolteca,” in Richard A. Diehl, ed.,
Studies of Ancient Tollan
, 130–149; Dan M. Healan, ed.,
Tula of the Toltecs: Excavations and Survey
(University of Iowa Press, 1989); Alba Guadalupe Mastache, Robert H. Cobean, and Dan M. Healan,
Ancient Tollan: Tula and the Toltec Heartland
(University Press of Colorado, 2002); Nigel Davies,
The Toltecs until the Fall of Tula
(University of Oklahoma Press, 1977).
509 Patricia L. Crown and W. Jeffrey Hurst, “Evidence of Cacao Use in the Prehispanic American Southwest,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
106 (2009): 2110–2113.
510 More about the legend of Tezcatlipoca driving Quetzalcoatl from Tula is given in Henry B. Nicholson, “Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl of Tollan” (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1957); also see Nigel Davies,
The Toltecs until the Fall of Tula
(see previous reference).
510 For the legend of the Aztec leaving Aztlan and changing their name to Mexica, see the
Tira de la Peregrinación (Codex Boturini)
(Librería Anticuaria, Mexico City, 1944); Nigel Davies,
The Aztecs: A History
(University of Oklahoma Press, 1973); Diego Durán,
The Aztecs: The History of the Indies of New Spain
(Orion Press, New York, 1964).
511 For information on the Aztec living as vassals of Azcapotzalco and sacrificing the Culhuacan princess, see
Crónica Mexicayotl
(Imprenta Universitaria, Mexico City, 1949); Richard F. Townsend,
The Aztecs
(Thames and Hudson, London, 2000); Eduardo Matos Moctezuma,
Tenochtitlan
(Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico City, 2006); Rudolf van Zantwijk,
The Aztec Arrangement: The Social History of Pre-Spanish Mexico
(University of Oklahoma Press, 1985); Diego Durán,
The Aztecs
(see previous reference).
512 The legendary events of Coatepec Hill are described by Eduardo Matos Moctezuma in “The Temple Mayor of Tenochtitlan: History and Interpretation,” in Johanna Broda, Davíd Carrasco, and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, eds.,
The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World
(University of California Press, 1987), 15–60, and in Alfredo López Austin and Leonardo López Luján,
Monte Sagrado-Templo Mayor: El Cerro y La Pirámide en la Tradición Religiosa Mesoamericana
(Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 2009).
512 The story of Acamapichtli is given in Diego Durán,
The Aztecs,
and in Nigel Davies,
The Aztecs
(see previous reference).
512 Maxtla’s driving of Nezahualcoyotl into exile is described in Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl,
Obras Históricas,
2 vols. (Editora Nacional, Mexico City, 1952); the lament composed by Nezahualcoyotl is given in Miguel León Portilla,
Fifteen Poets of the Aztec World
(University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 90–91.
513 Diego Durán, in
The Aztecs,
Rudolf van Zantwijk, in
The Aztec Arrangement,
Richard F. Townsend, in
The Aztecs,
and Nigel Davies, in
The Aztecs,
discuss the winning of Aztec political independence.
513 William T. Sanders, Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley,
The Basin of Mexico
(see previous reference).
514 For discussions of the sixteenth-century sources on pilli, tecuhtli, macehualli, and mayeque, see Mercedes Olivera,
Pillis y Macehuales
(La Casa Chata, Mexico City, 1978); Charles Gibson,
The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810
(Stanford University Press, 1964); and James Lockhart,
The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Mexico
(Stanford University Press, 1992).
515 For a discussion of the calpulli, see James Lockhart,
The Nahuas After the Conquest;
Pedro Carrasco, “La Casa y Hacienda de un Señor Tlahuica,”
Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl
10 (1972): 235–244; Frederic Hicks, “Tetzcoco in the Early 16th Century: The State, the City and the Calpolli,”
American Ethnologist
9 (1982): 230–249; Charles Gibson,
The Aztecs under Spanish Rule;
and Rudolf van Zantwijk,
The Aztec Arrangement
(see previous reference).
516 Key references on the pochteca are found in Frances F. Berdan and Patricia R. Anawalt, eds.,
The Codex Mendoza,
4 vols. (University of California Press, 1992); Frances F. Berdan et al.,
Aztec Imperial Strategies
(Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., 1996); and Ross Hassig,
Trade, Tribute, and Transportation: The Sixteenth Century Political Economy of the Valley of Mexico
(University of Oklahoma Press, 1985). For additional information on Xicalango and ports of trade, see Anne Chapman, “Port of Trade Enclaves in Aztec and Maya Civilizations,” in Karl Polanyi, Conrad M. Arensberg, and Harry W. Pearson, eds.,
Trade and Market in the Early Empires
(Free Press, Glencoe, Ill., 1957), 114–153; also see Lorenzo Ochoa S. and Ernesto Vargas P., “Xicalango, Puerto Chontal de Intercambio: Mito y Realidad,”
Anales de Antropología
25 (1986): 95–114.
517 The chinampa system is discussed in Pedro Armillas, “Gardens on Swamps,”
Science
174 (1971): 653–661; Teresa Rojas, “Evolución Histórica del Repertorio de Plantas Cultivadas en las Chinampas de la Cuenca de México,” in Teresa Rojas, ed.,
La Agricultura Chinampera: Compilación Histórica
(Universidad Autónoma de Chapingo, Mexico City, 1982), 181–214; and Edward E. Calnek, “Settlement Pattern and Chinampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan,”
American Antiquity
37 (1972): 104–115.
517 For an eyewitness description of downtown Tenochtitlan, see Bernal Díaz del Castillo,
The Conquest of New Spain
(Penguin Books, New York, 1963). Also see Edward E. Calnek, “The Internal Structure of Tenochtitlan,” in Eric R. Wolf, ed.,
The Valley of Mexico: Studies of Pre-Hispanic Ecology and Society
(University of New Mexico Press, 1976), 287–302.
519 Nigel Davies,
The Aztecs;
Rudolf van Zantwijk,
The Aztec Arrangement;
Susan D. Gillespie,
The Aztec Kings: The Constitution of Rulership in Mexica History
(University of Arizona Press, 1989); Joyce Marcus, “Aztec Military Campaigns against the Zapotecs: The Documentary Evidence,” in Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, eds.,
The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations
(Academic Press, New York, 1983), 314–318; Kent V. Flannery, “Zapotec Warfare: Archaeological Evidence for the Battles of Huitzo and Guiengola,” in Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, eds.,
The Cloud People,
318–322.