Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (181 page)

75
Mayr-Harting, 'Early Middle Ages', 47-8. On the contemporary debate between East and West on images, see pp. 442 - 56.

76
Ibid., 'Early Middle Ages', 49-51.

77
Nelson, 'England and the Continent in the Ninth Century: IV. Minds and Bodies', 3; Bachrach, 'Confession in the
Regnum Francorum
(742-900)', 9-10.

78
Southern,
Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages
, 226.

79
Doig, 126-8.

80
B. Yorke,
Nunneries and the Anglo-Saxon Royal Houses
(London and New York, 2003), 17-18, 26, 31-3, 118, 153-4.

81
The definitive and truly monumental study of this is W. Horn and E. Born,
The Plan of St Gall: A Study of the Architecture & Economy of Life in a Paradigmatic Carolingian Monastery
(3 vols., Berkeley, 1979); detailed analysis and illustrations of the plan are I, 36 - 104.

82
J. T. Palmer, 'Rimbert's
Vita Anskarii
and Scandinavian Mission in the 9th Century',
JEH
, 55 (2004), 235-56.

83
Hayward, 'Gregory the Great as "Apostle of the English" ', at 24-5.

84
E. Gibbon,
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
(12 vols., London, 1813), IX, 198-9 [Ch. 49].

85
Herrin, 207-11.

86
Chadwick, 198.

11: The West: Universal Emperor or Universal Pope? (900-1200)

1
For a notable reassessment of Aethelwold's importance, see M. Gretsch,
The Intellectual Foundations of the English Benedictine Reform
(Cambridge, 1999), esp. 425-7. For further comment on one tendentious historical legacy of Aethelwold's and Oswald's reforms, see D. Cox, 'St Oswald of Worcester at Evesham Abbey: Cult and Concealment',
JEH
, 53 (2002), 269-85. On Dunstan and Ovid's
Ars Amatoria
, see letter by D. Ganz in
TLS
, 18 May 2007, 17; the MS is Bodleian Library MS Auct.F.4.32.

2
K. G. Cushing,
Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century: Spirituality and Social Change
(Manchester, 2005), 59-60.

3
Ibid., 92-3.

4
Incisive discussion of the change is R. I. Moore,
The First European Revolution, c. 970-1215
(Oxford, 2000), 45-55.

5
The process is well examined kingdom by kingdom by the essayists in N. Berend (ed.),
Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus', c. 900-1200
(Cambridge, 2008). The exception was Iceland, which acquired Christianity around 1000 without acquiring a monarchy.

6
R. N. Swanson,
The Twelfth-century Renaissance
(Manchester, 1999), 8.

7
Southern's argument is crisply summarized in a classic review article, 'Between Heaven and Hell',
TLS
, 18 June 1982, 651-2. See also G. R. Edwards, 'Purgatory: "Birth" or Evolution?',
JEH
, 36 (1985), 634-46. Both react critically to a major but flawed study by J. Le Goff,
The Birth of Purgatory
(London, 1984) - on the first use of the noun 'Purgatory', see ibid., 362-6.

8
Cushing,
Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century
, 39-40.

9
Ibid., 48.

10
D. S. Bailey,
The Man-Woman Relationship in Christian Thought
(London, 1959), 89, 92-4, 114-15, 118, 139, 141.

11
Moore,
The First European Revolution, c. 970-1215
, 92-5.

12
J. Goody,
The Development of the Family and Marriage in Europe
(Cambridge, 1983), 44-7.

13
Moore,
The First European Revolution, c. 970-1215
, 65-72.

14
Cushing,
Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century
, 99: for a sixteenth-century clash over this claim, see D. MacCulloch,
Thomas Cranmer: A Life
(New Haven and London, 1996), 577.

15
B. Gordon, 'Switzerland', in Pettegree (ed., 1992), 70-93, at 73n.

16
Cushing,
Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century
, 63-4.

17
Chadwick, 200-213.

18
The
Dictatus papae
: see Cushing,
Reform and the Papacy in the Eleventh Century
, 78-9.

19
R. W. Southern,
Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages
(London, 1970), 100 - 105.

20
Two fine biographies of Becket compete: F. Barlow,
Thomas Becket
(London, 1987) and A. Duggan,
Thomas Becket
(London, 2004).

21
S. F. Cawsey, 'Royal Eloquence, Royal Propaganda and the Use of the Sermon in the Medieval Crown of Aragon, c. 1200-1410',
JEH
, 50 (1999), 442-63, esp. 443, 446-8. For discussion of late medieval relations between monarchs and papacy, see MacCulloch, 43 - 6.

22
A. Bellenger and S. Fletcher
, Princes of the Church: A History of the English Cardinals
(Stroud, 2001), v-vi, comment on the more usual pious explanation for the word 'cardinal' as being a 'hinge' of the Church.

23
A. Sommerlechner et al. (eds.),
Der Register Innocenz' III
(Graz, from 1963, in progress),
IX: Pontificatsjahr, 1206/1207
, 244-5.

24
Swanson,
The Twelfth-century Renaissance
, 70.

25
Chadwick, 234; a major breakthrough in understanding the formation of 'Gratian' is now A. Winroth,
The Making of Gratian's
Decretum (Cambridge, 2000), esp. 193-6.

26
Encyclical of Pius X,
Vehementer
(1906), qu. G. O'Collins and M. Farrugia,
Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity
(Oxford, 2003), 307n. For Gratian and the distinction between 'two classes of Christians', see ibid., 307, qu.
Decretum
, 2.12.1.

27
A point made by Southern,
Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages
, 131-2.

28
G. Duby,
The Age of the Cathedrals: Art and Society 980-1420
(London, 1981), and see Doig, 169-96.

29
On the origins and connotations of the name 'Gothic', see A. Buchanan, 'Interpretations of Medieval Architecture, c. 1550-1750', in M. Hall,
Gothic Architecture and Its Meanings 1550-1830
(Reading, 2002), 27-52, esp. 29.

30
Doig, 172.

31
N. Pevsner and A. Wedgwood,
The Buildings of England: Warwickshire
(London, 1966), 251, apropos of St Michael's Coventry (Warwickshire, England), a grand fifteenth-century Gothic parish church which did indeed briefly become a cathedral in modern times before its bombing in 1940.

32
Incomparable as an essay on a church which captures the spirit of this era is H. Adams,
Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres
(Boston, MA, 1904). For Chartres's survival through the French Revolution, thanks to the resolve of local people and officials, see M. K. Cooney, ' "May the hatchet and the hammer never damage it!": The Fate of the Cathedral of Chartres during the French Revolution',
Catholic Historical Review
, 92 (2006), 193-213.

33
H. E. J. Cowdrey,
The Cluniacs and the Gregorian Reform
(Oxford, 1970), 214-47, esp. 243-4.

34
C. Morris,
The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West from the Beginning to 1600
(Oxford, 2005), 134-46. For a dissenting view on the effect of 1009, see J. France, 'The Destruction of Jerusalem and the First Crusade',
JEH
, 47 (1996), 1-17.

35
H. Houben,
Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler between East and West
(Cambridge, 2002), 20.

36
P. E. Chevedden, 'The Islamic View and the Christian View of the Crusades: A New Synthesis',
History
, 93 (2008), 181-200, esp. 184-6, 192-4.

37
T. Asbridge,
The First Crusade: A New History
(London, 2004), 29-30.

38
Tyerman, 61-3. For the background and Urban's message, Asbridge,
The First Crusade
, 16-20, 32-6.

39
Tyerman, 79, 282-6.

40
D. Hay, 'Gender Bias and Religious Intolerance in Accounts of the "Massacres" of the First Crusade', in M. Gervers and J. M. Powell (eds.),
Tolerance and Intolerance: Social Conflict in the Age of the Crusades
(Syracuse, NY, 2001), 3-10.

41
Z. Karabell,
People of the Book: The Forgotten History of Islam and the West
(London, 2007), 93.

42
Tyerman, 247, 662-3.

43
Ibid., 838-43, and M. Barber,
The Trial of the Templars
(2nd edn, Cambridge, 2006); for the sad afterlife of some ex-Templars, see A. J. Forey, 'Ex-Templars in England',
JEH
, 53 (2002), 18-37. For recent arguments that the Templars were indeed guilty of some of the blasphemies attributed to them, see J. Riley-Smith, 'Were the Templars Guilty?', in S. J. Ridyard (ed.),
The Medieval Crusade
(Woodbridge and Rochester, NY, 2004), 107 - 24.

44
Tyerman, 674-712.

45
For the most recent debate on the relationship between Bogomils and Cathars, still a controversial subject in which R. I. Moore is a minimalist sceptic, see essays by D. F. Callahan, B. Hamilton and M. Barber in M. Frassetto (ed.),
Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R. I. Moore
(Leiden, 2006), 31-42, 93-138. See also N. Malcolm,
Bosnia: A Short History
(London, 1994), 27-42.

46
Tyerman, 563-605.

47
Ibid., 894-905.

48
Ibid., 825-74.

49
Morris,
The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West from the Beginning to 1600
, 383. The rebuilding might have taken place in association with San Lorenzo in Florence; for another piquant phase in the history of this ancient church, see pp. 664-5.

50
P. Gorecki,
A Local Society in Transition: The Henrykow Book and Related Documents
(Toronto, 2007), 102-3, and see also 81, 85.

51
I am grateful for clarifications of this story from Dom Gabriel van Dijck and Dom Marie-Robert Torczynski of the Grande Chartreuse, who referred me to C. E. Berseaux,
L'Ordre des chartreux et la chartreuse de Bosserville
(Nancy and Paris, 1868), 469-71, 504. A remarkable account of the last days of traditional Carthusian life in Parkminster, a twentieth-century English Charterhouse, is N. Klein Maguire,
An Infinity of Little Hours: Five Young Men and Their Trial of Faith in the Western World's Most Austere Monastic Order
(New York, 2006).

52
B. Barber and C. Thomas,
The London Charterhouse
(London, 2002), 60-65, 105-13.

53
G. Bonner,
Saint Augustine of Hippo: Life and Controversies
(2nd edn, Norwich, 1963), 386-7, provides an analysis of which texts may with confidence be attributed to Augustine.

54
Figures derived from listings in M. R. James,
Suffolk and Norfolk
(London, 1930), 28 - 31.

55
D. F. Wright, 'From "God-bearer" to "Mother of God" in the Later Fathers', in R. N. Swanson (ed.),
The Church and Mary
(
SCH
, 39, 2004), 22-30.

56
S. Hamilton, 'The Virgin Mary in Cathar Thought',
JEH
, 56 (2005), 24-49, esp. 34, 37, 48.

57
See, for instance, P. Preston, 'Cardinal Cajetan and Fra Ambrosius Catharinus in the Controversy over the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin in Italy, 1515-51', in Swanson (ed.),
The Church and Mary
, 181-90. On Bernard, see B. Sella, 'Northern Italian Confraternities and the Immaculate Conception in the Fourteenth Century',
JEH
, 49 (1998), 599-619, at 601-2.

58
H. Mayr-Harting, 'The Idea of the Assumption in the West, 800-1200', in Swanson (ed.),
The Church and Mary
, 86-111.

59
R. Marks,
Image and Devotion in Late Medieval England
(Stroud, 2004), 61, and on rededications, ibid., 38.

12: A Church for All People? (1100-1300)

1
R. I. Moore,
The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Power and Deviance in Western Europe, 950-1250
(Oxford, 1987), 14-19.

2
On the concrete evidence for Valdes's career, P. Biller, 'Goodbye to Waldensianism?',
PP
, 192 (August 2006), 3-34, at 13-14.

3
N. Cohn,
The Pursuit of the Millennium
(3rd rev. edn, London, 1969), 148-86.

4
R. N. Swanson,
The Twelfth-century Renaissance
(Manchester, 1999), 116.

5
G. Makdisi,
The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West
(Edinburgh, 1981), esp. 285-91.

6
Ibid., 279-80.

7
G. Dickson, 'Revivalism as a Medieval Religious Genre',
JEH
, 51 (2000), 473-96, at 482-3.

8
Moore,
The Formation of a Persecuting Society
; J. Boswell,
Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century
(Chicago, 1980), esp. 288-93.

9
M. Barber, 'Lepers, Jews and Moslems: The Plot to Overthrow Christendom in 1321',
History
, 66 (1981), 1-18.

10
MacCulloch, 9, and see R. Po-chia Hsia,
The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany
(New Haven and London, 1988).

11
P. Zutshi, 'Pope Honorius III's
Gratiarum omnium
and the Beginnings of the Dominican Order', in A. J. Duggan (ed.),
Omnia disce: Medieval Studies in Memory of Leonard Boyle, O.P.
(Aldershot, 2005), 199-210.