Authors: Robert Ferguson
The Vikings (65 page)
CHAPTER 14 GREENLAND AND NORTH AMERICA
1
. Quoted in
Icelandic Culture
, by Sigurdur Nordal, trans. with notes by Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (New York 1990: 91).
. Quoted in
Icelandic Culture
, by Sigurdur Nordal, trans. with notes by Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (New York 1990: 91).
2
.
The Vinland Saga. The Norse discovery of America
, trans. and introduced by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (London 1978: 76).
.
The Vinland Saga. The Norse discovery of America
, trans. and introduced by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (London 1978: 76).
4
. ibid., p. 604.
. ibid., p. 604.
5
. ibid., vol. 3, p. 537.
. ibid., vol. 3, p. 537.
6
. It is not clear from the saga whether Erik had been exiled for life or only for another three years, and there may have been flexibility in such matters. Given his avowed intention to settle in Greenland it is possible he was permitted to return for the purposes of organizing the colonization.
. It is not clear from the saga whether Erik had been exiled for life or only for another three years, and there may have been flexibility in such matters. Given his avowed intention to settle in Greenland it is possible he was permitted to return for the purposes of organizing the colonization.
9
. ‘Far and yet near: North America and Norse Greenland’, by Kirsten Seaver, in
Viking Heritage
, 1 (2000: 3).
. ‘Far and yet near: North America and Norse Greenland’, by Kirsten Seaver, in
Viking Heritage
, 1 (2000: 3).
13
. ibid., p. 86.
. ibid., p. 86.
15
. ‘The fate of Greenland’s Vikings’, by Dale Mackenzie Brown, in
Archaeology. A Publication of the Archaeological Institute of America
. Internet resource at
http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/greenland/
(accessed 12.12.2007).
. ‘The fate of Greenland’s Vikings’, by Dale Mackenzie Brown, in
Archaeology. A Publication of the Archaeological Institute of America
. Internet resource at
http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/greenland/
(accessed 12.12.2007).
16
. What follows is based on an article in
Viking Heritage
, 4 (2001: 3-7), by Joel Berglund, of the Greenland National Museum, who was one of the leaders of the excavation.
. What follows is based on an article in
Viking Heritage
, 4 (2001: 3-7), by Joel Berglund, of the Greenland National Museum, who was one of the leaders of the excavation.
17
. ‘Far and yet near’, op. cit., p. 3.
. ‘Far and yet near’, op. cit., p. 3.
18
. ‘A “Northern Periphery” project: The Viking Trail’, in
Conservation of an Early Norse Farm at Narsaq, South Greenland
, by Hans Kapel and Rie Oldenburg. Internet resource at
http://www.narsaq-museum.org/common-doc/viking-trail.pdf
(accessed 24 July 2008).
. ‘A “Northern Periphery” project: The Viking Trail’, in
Conservation of an Early Norse Farm at Narsaq, South Greenland
, by Hans Kapel and Rie Oldenburg. Internet resource at
http://www.narsaq-museum.org/common-doc/viking-trail.pdf
(accessed 24 July 2008).
19
. ‘Reconstructing the costume of the Viking Age’, by Viktoria Persdotter, in
Viking Heritage
, 3 (1999: 3).
. ‘Reconstructing the costume of the Viking Age’, by Viktoria Persdotter, in
Viking Heritage
, 3 (1999: 3).
23
. Both letters are in the
American Journeys Collection
of the Wisconsin Historical Society Digital Library and Archives, Document No. AJ-060. Internet resource at
www.americanjourneys.org/aj-060/
(accessed 11.12.2007).
. Both letters are in the
American Journeys Collection
of the Wisconsin Historical Society Digital Library and Archives, Document No. AJ-060. Internet resource at
www.americanjourneys.org/aj-060/
(accessed 11.12.2007).
26
. ‘Inuit and Norsemen in Arctic Canada AD 1000 to 1400’, by Robert McGhee, in
Archaeological Survey of Canada: Oracles
. Internet resource at
www.civilization.ca/cmc/archeo/oracles/norse/40.htm
(accessed 11.12.2007).
. ‘Inuit and Norsemen in Arctic Canada AD 1000 to 1400’, by Robert McGhee, in
Archaeological Survey of Canada: Oracles
. Internet resource at
www.civilization.ca/cmc/archeo/oracles/norse/40.htm
(accessed 11.12.2007).
29
. ibid., pp. 127-34.
. ibid., pp. 127-34.
30
.
Konungs skuggsjá
(
The King’s Mirror
), online translation, by Laurence M. Larson, Chapter XVII (1917). Internet resource at
http://www.mediumaevum.com/75years/mirror/
(accessed 12.12.2007).
.
Konungs skuggsjá
(
The King’s Mirror
), online translation, by Laurence M. Larson, Chapter XVII (1917). Internet resource at
http://www.mediumaevum.com/75years/mirror/
(accessed 12.12.2007).
32
. ‘Vikingerne tidligere i Amerika end vi troede’, article in
Berlingske Tidende
, 23 September 2008.
. ‘Vikingerne tidligere i Amerika end vi troede’, article in
Berlingske Tidende
, 23 September 2008.
34
. ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland: The Norse in the North Atlantic’, by Birgitta Wallace, in
Viking Heritage
, 3 (2004: 26).
. ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland: The Norse in the North Atlantic’, by Birgitta Wallace, in
Viking Heritage
, 3 (2004: 26).
35
. For a discussion of the differences between the sagas as literature and history, see
The Vinland Saga
, op. cit., pp. 35-9.
. For a discussion of the differences between the sagas as literature and history, see
The Vinland Saga
, op. cit., pp. 35-9.
36
. ‘Far and yet near’, op. cit., p. 4.
. ‘Far and yet near’, op. cit., p. 4.
37
. The name is an example of the pitfalls of modern mapmaking when written encounters oral culture. What looks like a mixture of French and English is probably a misrendering of the all-French L’Anse aux Méduse, ‘the bay of jellyfish’.
. The name is an example of the pitfalls of modern mapmaking when written encounters oral culture. What looks like a mixture of French and English is probably a misrendering of the all-French L’Anse aux Méduse, ‘the bay of jellyfish’.
38
. ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland’, op. cit., p. 28.
. ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland’, op. cit., p. 28.
40
. ‘Norse Greenland on the eve of Renaissance exploration’, by Kirsten A. Seaver, in
Voyages and Exploration in the North Atlantic from the Middle Ages to the XVIIth Century
, ed. Anna Agnarsdóttir (Reykjavik 2001: 30).
CHAPTER 15 RAGNARÖK IN ICELAND. ‘Norse Greenland on the eve of Renaissance exploration’, by Kirsten A. Seaver, in
Voyages and Exploration in the North Atlantic from the Middle Ages to the XVIIth Century
, ed. Anna Agnarsdóttir (Reykjavik 2001: 30).
2
. ibid., p. 23.
. ibid., p. 23.
3
.
The Tale of Thorvald Chatterbox
, collected in
Viga-Glum’s Saga
, trans. John McKinnell (Edinburgh 1987).
.
The Tale of Thorvald Chatterbox
, collected in
Viga-Glum’s Saga
, trans. John McKinnell (Edinburgh 1987).
5
.
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden
, trans. and ed. by Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 216) (Book IV, Chapter 36, scholium 156).
.
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden
, trans. and ed. by Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 216) (Book IV, Chapter 36, scholium 156).
7
. ibid., pp. xxxii, 42-43.
. ibid., pp. xxxii, 42-43.
8
. ibid., p. 44.
. ibid., p. 44.
9
. ibid., p. 8.
. ibid., p. 8.
10
.
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings
, by Theodoricus Monachus, trans. and annotated by David and Ian McDougall with an introduction by Peter Foote (London 1998: 15).
.
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings
, by Theodoricus Monachus, trans. and annotated by David and Ian McDougall with an introduction by Peter Foote (London 1998: 15).
11
. ibid., p. 16.
. ibid., p. 16.
12
. Ari writes that the mission took place in the same summer as Olaf Tryggvason was killed, but that Olaf met his death in the year 1000. The apparent discrepancy arises because Ari began his year on 1 September and Olaf is believed to have died on 9 September. Starting the year on 1 January as we now do gives a date for both the conversion mission and Olaf’s death of 999. See
The Conversion of Iceland
, by Dag Strömback (London, 1975), esp. footnote 1 on page 2, summarizing a 1964 paper
Studier i kronologisk metode i tidlig islandsk historieskrivning
by Dr Ólafiá Einarsdottir.
. Ari writes that the mission took place in the same summer as Olaf Tryggvason was killed, but that Olaf met his death in the year 1000. The apparent discrepancy arises because Ari began his year on 1 September and Olaf is believed to have died on 9 September. Starting the year on 1 January as we now do gives a date for both the conversion mission and Olaf’s death of 999. See
The Conversion of Iceland
, by Dag Strömback (London, 1975), esp. footnote 1 on page 2, summarizing a 1964 paper
Studier i kronologisk metode i tidlig islandsk historieskrivning
by Dr Ólafiá Einarsdottir.
14
. ‘On the conversion of the Icelanders’, by Peter Foote, reviewing
Under the Cloak
by Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson, in
Aurvandilstá: Norse Studies
(Odense 1984: 62).
. ‘On the conversion of the Icelanders’, by Peter Foote, reviewing
Under the Cloak
by Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson, in
Aurvandilstá: Norse Studies
(Odense 1984: 62).
15
. J. H. Adalsteinsson,
Under the Cloak: The acceptance of Christianity in Iceland with particular reference to the religious attitudes prevailing at the time
(Uppsala 1978: 99).
. J. H. Adalsteinsson,
Under the Cloak: The acceptance of Christianity in Iceland with particular reference to the religious attitudes prevailing at the time
(Uppsala 1978: 99).
16
. ibid., p. 99.
. ibid., p. 99.
18
. ibid., p. 9.
. ibid., p. 9.
19
. There is no evidence that Runolf and Hjalti were related. The implication that Runolf took the prosecution upon himself as someone outside the family would bear strong witness to his opposition to Christianity’s progress.
. There is no evidence that Runolf and Hjalti were related. The implication that Runolf took the prosecution upon himself as someone outside the family would bear strong witness to his opposition to Christianity’s progress.
21
. ‘Fimbulvinteren, Ragnarök och Klimatkrisen år 536-537 e. kr.’, by Bo Gräslund, in
Saga och Sed 2007
(Uppsala 2008).
. ‘Fimbulvinteren, Ragnarök och Klimatkrisen år 536-537 e. kr.’, by Bo Gräslund, in
Saga och Sed 2007
(Uppsala 2008).
22
.
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings
, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 6).
.
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings
, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 6).
23
.
Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: 1. English Text; II. Commentary
, trans. and annotated by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 290).
.
Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: 1. English Text; II. Commentary
, trans. and annotated by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 290).
26
. ‘The fantastic future and the Norse Sybil of Völuspå’, by Gro Steinsland. Internet resource at
http://www.dur.ac.uk/medieval.www/sagaconf/steinsland.htm
(accessed 25.09.2007).
. ‘The fantastic future and the Norse Sybil of Völuspå’, by Gro Steinsland. Internet resource at
http://www.dur.ac.uk/medieval.www/sagaconf/steinsland.htm
(accessed 25.09.2007).
30
. See Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson’s doctoral thesis
Under the Cloak: The acceptance of Christianity in Iceland with particular reference to the religious attitudes prevailing at the time
(Uppsala, 1978), for a full exposition of this theory and further examples of this practice.
. See Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson’s doctoral thesis
Under the Cloak: The acceptance of Christianity in Iceland with particular reference to the religious attitudes prevailing at the time
(Uppsala, 1978), for a full exposition of this theory and further examples of this practice.
31
. ‘Sjamanisme i norske sagn fra middelalderen’, by Ronald Grambo, in
Forum Mediævale
, 4/5, no. 1/2 (1983: 9).
. ‘Sjamanisme i norske sagn fra middelalderen’, by Ronald Grambo, in
Forum Mediævale
, 4/5, no. 1/2 (1983: 9).
32
. ‘Rimbert:
Life of Anskar
, the Apostle of the North, 801-865’, trans. Charles H. Robinson, chapter 27. Internet resource at
Medieval Sourcebook
,
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html
(accessed 17.02.2004).
. ‘Rimbert:
Life of Anskar
, the Apostle of the North, 801-865’, trans. Charles H. Robinson, chapter 27. Internet resource at
Medieval Sourcebook
,
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html
(accessed 17.02.2004).
33
.
The Agricola and Germania
, by Tacitus, trans. by A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb (London 1877: ch. 10: ‘Auguries and methods of divination’. Internet resource at
Medieval Sourcebook
,
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/tacitus1.html
(accessed 18.12. 2007).
.
The Agricola and Germania
, by Tacitus, trans. by A. J. Church and W. J. Brodribb (London 1877: ch. 10: ‘Auguries and methods of divination’. Internet resource at
Medieval Sourcebook
,
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/tacitus1.html
(accessed 18.12. 2007).
36
. ‘Gunnlaug Wormtongue’ is included in
Eirik the Red and Other Icelandic Sagas
, trans. by Gwyn Jones (London 1961).
. ‘Gunnlaug Wormtongue’ is included in
Eirik the Red and Other Icelandic Sagas
, trans. by Gwyn Jones (London 1961).
43
. These tenth-century verses question a popular assumption, deriving from Stendhal’s 1822 treatise ‘On Love’, that romantic love was invented at some point after 1100. Some years ago an American scholar joked that the most frequent cause of death among young men in the Saga Age was the composing of love poetry. See ‘Jeg elsker deg’, by Bjørn Bandlien in
Klassekampen
, July 2007, p. 9.
. These tenth-century verses question a popular assumption, deriving from Stendhal’s 1822 treatise ‘On Love’, that romantic love was invented at some point after 1100. Some years ago an American scholar joked that the most frequent cause of death among young men in the Saga Age was the composing of love poetry. See ‘Jeg elsker deg’, by Bjørn Bandlien in
Klassekampen
, July 2007, p. 9.
45
. The complicated structure of skaldic poetry makes these effects impossible to convey in translation. For a complete exposition of how close Hallfred sails to the wind see ‘The Reluctant Christian and the King of Norway’, by Cecil Wood, in
Scandinavian Studies
, Vol. XXXI, 2 (May 1959: 65-72).
. The complicated structure of skaldic poetry makes these effects impossible to convey in translation. For a complete exposition of how close Hallfred sails to the wind see ‘The Reluctant Christian and the King of Norway’, by Cecil Wood, in
Scandinavian Studies
, Vol. XXXI, 2 (May 1959: 65-72).
46
. Based on the circumstances of its composition, valid but not fatal objections to the authenticity of this last verse have been raised. See ‘The Last Hour of Hallfredar vandrædaskald’, by Bjarni Einarsson, in
Proceedings of the Eighth Viking Congress
(Odense 1981: 217-223).
. Based on the circumstances of its composition, valid but not fatal objections to the authenticity of this last verse have been raised. See ‘The Last Hour of Hallfredar vandrædaskald’, by Bjarni Einarsson, in
Proceedings of the Eighth Viking Congress
(Odense 1981: 217-223).
48
.
Ágrip: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway
, ed. and trans. with an introduction and notes by M. J. Driscoll (London 1995: 34)
.
Ágrip: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway
, ed. and trans. with an introduction and notes by M. J. Driscoll (London 1995: 34)
50
.
The Icelandic Saga
, by Peter Hallberg, trans. and introduced by Paul Schach (Lincoln 1962: 31-4).
CHAPTER 16 ST BRICE, ST ALPHEGE AND THE WOLF: THE FALL OF ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND.
The Icelandic Saga
, by Peter Hallberg, trans. and introduced by Paul Schach (Lincoln 1962: 31-4).
3
. ibid., p. 895.
. ibid., p. 895.
5
. ibid., p. 133.
. ibid., p. 133.
10
. Roger of Wendover’s is one of a number of accounts of St Brice’s Day collected at
http://www.havhingsten.dk/index.php?id=925&L=I&id=925&type=98
. Internet resource (accessed 24 July 2008).
. Roger of Wendover’s is one of a number of accounts of St Brice’s Day collected at
http://www.havhingsten.dk/index.php?id=925&L=I&id=925&type=98
. Internet resource (accessed 24 July 2008).
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