THE SHIELD OF ACHILLES (138 page)

1
. Michael Roberts,
The Military Revolution 1556 – 1660
(1956), reprinted with slight changes in Michael Roberts,
Essays in Swedish History
(University of Minnesota Press, 1967), 195 – 225.

2
. Sir George Clark,
War and Society in the Seventeenth Century
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1958).

3
. See, for example, Karen Rasler and William Thomson, “War Making and State Making and Governmental Expenditures, Tax Reviews and Global War,”
American Political Science Review
49 (1985): 491 – 507; Michael Mann,
States, War, and Capitalism
(Basil Blackwell, 1988); John Brewer,
The Sinews of Power
(Unwin Hyman, 1989); Niall Ferguson,
The Cash Nexus: Money and Power in the Modern World, 1700 – 2000
(Basic Books, 2001).

4
. Parker,
The Military Revolution
, 2–3.

5
. See also William McNeill,
The Pursuit of Power
(University of Chicago Press, 1982).

6
. Geoffrey Parker, “The ‘Military Revolution,’ 1560 – 1660—A Myth?,”
Journal of Modern History
46 (1976).

7
. Jeremy Black,
European Warfare, 1660 – 1815
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).

1
. Compare Dante,
The Inferno
, trans. Robert Pinsky (Noonday Press, 1996), Canto III, 11.5–6, 24 – 25. (“No things before me not eternal.”)

2
. Adam Watson,
The Evolution of International Society
(Routledge, 1992), 143.

3
. Eric Christiansen,
The Northern Crusades: The Baltic and the Catholic Frontier, 1100 – 1525
(Macmillan, 1980), 250 – 251.

4
. See Watson, n. 106, chapters
13
and
14
generally.

5
. John Keegan,
A History of Warfare
(Hutchison, 1993). His predecessor, Charles VII, had used bombards to great effect earlier in the century. Harfleur, which had successfully resisted long sieges in 1415 and 1440, fell to Charles in only seventeen days after an attack by sixteen bombards. See Christopher Allmand in
The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare
, ed. Geoffrey Parker (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

6
. Quoted in M. E. Mallet, “Diplomacy and War in Later Fifteenth Century Italy,”
Proceedings of the British Academy
, 67 (1981): 267 – 288.

7
. Keegan,
A History of Warfare
, 320 – 322.

8
. Michael T. Clark, “Realism: Ancient and Modern,”
Political Science and Politics
26, no. 3 (September 1993): 491.

9
. Samuel E. Finer, “State and Nation-Building in Europe,” in
The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe
, ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton University Press, 1975), 74.

10
. Wallace K. Ferguson,
Europe in Transition
(Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 153 – 155.

11
. Such was the rise of Francesco Sforza, a
condottiere
who became Duke of Milan by ex-ploiting the state apparatus that the Visconti had developed. Franco Catalano,
Francesco Sforza
(Dall' Oglio, 1983); Cecilia Ady, “The Invasions of Italy,”
New Cambridge Modern History
, ed. G. R. Potter (Cambridge, U.K., 1960), 1, 344; Jacob Burckhardt,
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
, vol. 1 (Harper & Row, 1958), 34 – 44.

12
. See Fernand Braudel,
Civilization and Capitalism, Fifteenth – Eighteenth Century
, vol. 3,
The Perspective of the World
, trans. Sian Reynolds (Harper & Row, 1984), 120; see also Michael Knapton, “City Wealth and State Wealth in Northeast Italy, Fourteenth – Seventeenth Centuries,” in
La ville, la bourgeoisie, et la genèse de l'état moderne, XIIe – XVIIIe siècles: Actes du colloque de Bielefeld, 29 novembre – I décembre 1985
, ed. Neithard Bulst and Jean-Philippe Genet (Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique: Diffusion, Presses du CNRS, 1988).

13
. Niccolò Machiavelli, last chapter in
The Prince
.

14
. Michael Howard,
War in European History
(Oxford, 1976), 5.

15
. Felix Gilbert, “Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War,” in
Makers of Modern Strategy
, ed. Peter Paret (Princeton University Press, 1986), 12 – 13.

16
. Machiavelli,
The Prince
, chapter 12.

17
. Machiavelli,
The Discourses, III
, 31.

18
. Machiavelli,
The Prince
(trans. L. Ricci, 1903: rev., 1935), 43 – 44.

19
. John Addington Symonds,
A Short History of the Renaissance in Italy
(Scribner, 1893), 4.

20
. Of which scutage, which dates from the high Middle Ages, was a harbinger.

21
. Paul Kennedy,
The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000
(Random House, 1987), 23; see also John Ulric Nef,
War and Human Progress: An Essày on the Rise of Industrial Civilization
(Russell & Russell, 1950), 46.

22
. Lynn, citing recent scholarship on state formation in early modern Europe, recognizes this link between war and emerging absolutism. See also Charles Tilly,
Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 900 – 1990
(B. Blackwell, 1990); Brian Downing,
The Military Revolution and Political Change
(Princeton University Press, 1992); and David Kaiser,
Politics and War: European Conflict from Philip II to Hitler
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990).

23
. Adam Watson,
The Evolution of International Society
(Routledge, 1992), 164.

24
. Ibid., 146.

25
. Ibid., 161.

26
. Clifford Rogers, “Military Evolution,” in
The Reader's Companion to Military History
, ed. Robert Cowley and Geoffrey Parker (Houghton Mifflin, 1996), 396.

27
. Geoffrey Parker,
The Military Revolution
, 12.

28
. Bert S. Hall and Kelly R. DeVries, “The Military Revolution Revisited,”
Technology and Culture
(July 1990): 500 – 507, take issue with Parker but on different grounds, i.e., they assume the premise that such fortresses would affect the state's political order but deny that the effects were as large, or as attributable to fortress design, as Parker maintains; and see Simon Adams, “Tactics or Politics? The Military Revolution and Hapsburg Hegemony, 1525 – 1649,” in
Tools of War
, ed. John A. Lynn (University of Illinois Press, 1990), 28 – 52, and John Lynn, “The Trace Italienne and the Growth of Armies: The French Case,”
Journal of Military History
55 (July 1991): 297 – 330.

29
. Watson, 164.

30
. Lynn, “Trace Italienne,” 322, speaking of the French experience.

31
. Kennedy, 70.

32
. Christopher Marlowe,
The Famous Tragedy of the Rich Jew of Malta
(Da Capo Press, 1971), 7.

1
. William Shakespeare,
The Tempest
, Act I, Scene 2, lines 94 – 100.
The Yale Shakespeare
, ed. W. L. Cross and Tucker Brooke (Barnes & Noble, 1993), p. 1408.

2
. Peter Mancias, “The Legitimation of the Modern State: A Historical and Structural Account,” in
State Formation and Political Legitimacy
, ed. R. Cohen and J. D. Toland (Transaction Books, 1988), 173 – 176.

3
. Tilly,
Coercion, Capital
, 14.

4
.Michael Howard,
War in European History
, 20; “Historians indeed normally date the beginnings of ‘Modern European History' from the Italian Wars which opened with the French invasion of 1494.”

5
. Jeremy Black, who is in a position to know, makes this claim. Jeremy Black,
European Warfare, 1660 – 1815
(Yale University Press, 1994), 3.

6
. Parker,
The Military Revolution
, 19. In this wonderfully written and illustrated book, Parker actually provides a plate reproducing William Louis's original letter, with a diagram in the count's hand showing how the countermarch would work.

7
. Richard Bonney,
The European Dynastic States, 1494 – 1660
(Oxford University Press, 1991), 524 – 525.

8
. Max Weber, from Max Weber:
Essays in Sociology
, trans. and ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (Oxford University Press, 1946), 256 – 257.

9
. Gunther E. Rothenberg, “Maurice of Nassau, Gustavus Adolphus, Raimondo Monte-cucolli, and the ‘Military Revolution' of the Seventeenth Century,” in
Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age
, ed. Peter Paret (Princeton, 1986), 33.

10
. Roberts,
Essays in Swedish History
, 204 –205, 210; see also Paul Kennedy's observation that “each belligerent had to learn how to create a satisfactory administrative structure to meet the ‘military revolution’; and of equal importance, it also had to devise new means of paying for the spiraling costs of war.” Kennedy, 56.

11
. McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
, 80, 95.

12
. Black,
European Warfare, 1660 – 1815
, 4.

13
. Jean Bodin,
Six Books of the Commonwealth
, ed. K. D. McRae (Harvard University Press, 1962), 200.

14
. Nicholas Henshell,
The Myth of Absolutism: Change and Continuity in Early Modern European Monarchy
(Longman, 1992), 3–4.

15
. Thomas Hobbes,
Behemoth
, William Olesworth, ed. (B. Franklin, 1963).

16
. Konrad Repgen, “What Is a ‘Religious War‘?” in
Politics and Society in Reformation Europe
, ed. E. I. Kouri and Tom Scott (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), 319; quoted in Bonney, 550.

17
. Kennedy, 52.

18
. Ibid., 25.

19
. A Habsburg prince was emperor from 1273 to 1291, 1298 to 1308, 1438 to 1740, and 1745 to 1806.