The Half Has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism (98 page)

78
. Miles,
Jacksonian Democracy
, 76; Tregle,
Louisiana in the Age of Jackson
, 281–284; cf. J. Franklin to RB, December 19, 1833, Fol. 12, RCB; Claiborne,
Mississippi
, 409–416; John Wurts to Polk, December 19, 1833, JKP, 2:186; John Welsh to Polk, December 28, 1833, JKP, 2:200–202; Parton,
Life of Jackson
, 2:549–550; Biddle to Poindexter, February 22, 1834; IF to RB, February 7, 1834; James Franklin to RB, Fol. 13, RCB; Terry Cahal to Polk, January 2, 1834, and William Jenkins to Polk, January 3, 1834, JKP, 2:209–211, 217.

79
. US Congress, “Condition of Banks,” 249, 299, 535; R. T. Hoskins to R. T. Brownrigg, December 19, 1835, Brownrigg Papers, SHC; Thomas Abernethy, “The Early Development of Commerce and Banking in Tennessee,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review
14 (1927): 321–322; R. W. Hidy, “The Union Bank Loan of 1832: A Case Study in Marketing,”
Journal of Political Economy
47 (1939): 232–352; Miles,
Jacksonian Democracy
, 140–141; Roeder, “New Orleans Merchants,” 334.

80
. Jane Knodell, “Rethinking the Jacksonian Economy: The Impact of the 1832 Bank Veto on Commercial Banking,”
Journal of Economic History
66 (2006): 541–574; Edward E. Baptist, “Borrowed by the Lash: Enslaved People as Collateral in the Great Divergence,” Paper presented at Capitalizing on Finance Conference, Huntington Library, Pasadena, CA, April 13, 2013.

81
.
American State Papers: Land
, 2:495–497; Claiborne,
Mississippi
, 411–417; US Congress, “Condition of Banks,” 290, 325–344; Henry Clay to Wm. Mercer, August 13, 1834, William Mercer Papers, Tulane.

82
. Anna Whitteker to Emily Dupuy, May 10, 1835, Emily Dupuy Papers, Mss1D9295b, Sect. 1, VHS.

83
. Miles,
Jacksonian Democracy
, 118–119; [?] to Thomas Wyche, February 9, 1835, Wyche-Otey Papers, SHC; IF to RB, March 30, 1834, Fol. 13; James Blakey to RB, August 6, 1834, Fol. 15; IF to RB, September 17, 1834, Fol. 15, RCB.

84
. Thomas Dorsey to J. Bieller, April 15, 1835, Fol. 1/7, BIELLER; Isham Harrison to Thomas Harrison, October 14, 1834, Fol. 3, James Harrison Papers, SHC.

CHAPTER 8. BLOOD: 1836–1844

1
. William Colbert, AS, 6.1 (AL), 81–82.

2
. Lewis Clarke, “Leaves from a Slave’s Journal of Life,” ed. Lydia Maria Child,
National Anti-Slavery Standard
, October 20, 27, 1842, 78–79, 83; Orlando Patterson,
Rituals of Blood: Consequences of Slavery in Two American Centuries
(New York, 1999); S. Ford to Bieller, n.d., Fol. 2/15, BIELLER; Archibald Hyman to L. Thompson, June 30, 1860, Lewis Thompson Papers, SHC.

3
. Ford to Bieller, n.d. Fol. 2/15, BIELLER; Jos. Labrenty to J. Waddill, September 22, 1838, Elijah Fuller Papers, SHC.

4
. Wiley Childress, AS, 16.6 (TN), 9; Martha Bradley, AS, 6.1 (AL), 47; Anthony Abercrombie, AS, 6.1 (AL), 7.

5
. Peter Corn, AS, 11.2 (MO), 87; Henry Waldon, AS, 11.1 (AR), 15–16; Columbus Williams, AS, 11.1 (AR), 155; William Read to Downey, August 18, 1848, S. S. Downey Papers, Duke; cf. Thomas Foster, “The Sexual Abuse of Black Men Under American Slavery,”
Journal of the History of Sexuality
20, no. 3 (2011): 445–464.

6
. David Walker,
Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World
(Boston, 1829), 14–15, 23, 28, 32; 1842 Speech of Lewis Clarke, ST, 152, 157–158; Robert Falls, AS, 16.6 (TN), 16; “Violence, Protest, and Identity: Black Masculinity in Antebellum America,” in James O. Horton,
Free People of Color: Inside the African-American Community
(Washington, DC, 1993); Orlando Patterson,
Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study
(Cambridge, MA, 1982); Claude Meillassoux,
The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold
(Chicago, 1991); Ann Clark, AS, 4.1 (TX), 223–224; George Cato, AS, S2, 11 (SC), 98; AS, 18 (TN), 95; Francis Burdett to R. C. Ballard (RB), July 3, 1848, Fol. 130, RCB.

7
. “Mrs. Webb,” MW, 209; Charity Bowers, ST, 266; Scott Bond, AS, S2, 1 (AR), 33.

8
. CHSUS, 3:24, 599.

9
. Andrew V. Remini,
Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy
(New York, 1984), 3:418–419, 367–368.

10
. Sean P. Kelley, “‘Mexico in His Head’: Slavery and the Texas-Mexico Border, 1810–1860,”
Journal of Social History
37 (2004): 709–723; Sean P. Kelley, “Black-birders and Bozales: African-Born Slaves on the Lower Brazos River of Texas in the Nineteenth Century,”
Civil War History
54, no. 4 (2008): 406–424; Randolph Campbell,
An Empire for Slavery
(Baton Rouge, LA, 1989), 54; Dudley G. Wooten,
A Comprehensive History of Texas, 1685 to 1897
(Austin, TX, 1986), 1:759; J. F. Perry to Lastraps & Desmare, January 15, 1834,
Stephen Austin Papers
, 3:39–40; Paul D. Lack, “Slavery and the Texas Revolution,”
Southwestern Historical Quarterly
89 (1985): 181–202.

11
.
Richmond Enquirer
, October 27, 1835, January 4, 1836; Ernest Shearer,
Robert Potter: Remarkable North Carolinian and Texan
(Houston, 1951), 49;
Essex Gazette
, May 14, 1836; Thomas Hardeman to Polk, March 31, 1836, 3:567–668, JKP. Harrison’s son was released unharmed and died in Ohio, genitalia intact, in 1840. Twenty-five Alamo dead were New Orleans volunteers: Edward L. Miller,
New Orleans and the Texas Revolution
(College Station, TX, 2004), 154.

12
. Jn. Lockhead to W. H. Hatchett, August 26, 1836, William Hatchett Papers, Duke. White southerners saw Texas as a new empire for slavery; cf. Eugene Barker,
Mexico and Texas, 1821–1835
(Dallas, 1928);
Alexandria Gazette
, May 19, 1836; Wm. Christy to Jos. Ellis, March 22, 1836, Miller,
New Orleans and the Texas Revolution; New York Express
, April 4, 1837;
Washington Intelligencer
, April 30, 1836.

13
. Farish Carter and R. S. Patton, April 4, 1835, Fol. 20, Eliz. Talley Papers, SHC; J. G. Johnson to G. W. Haywood, May 18, 1836, Fol. 146, HAY; James Huie, Case File 258, Bankruptcy Act of 1841, RG 21, NA; E. B. Hicks to Alex. Cuningham, March 29, 1838, Texas Land Scrip, Cuningham Papers, Duke; Geo. Johnson to Wm. Johnson, August 22, 1838, Wm. Johnson Papers, SHC; Missi. River Diary, Duke; James D. Cocke,
A Glance at the Currency and Resources Generally of the Republic of Texas
(Houston, 1838), 7–15.

14
. Campbell,
Empire for Slavery
, 35;
New Hampshire Sentinel
, April 21, 1836;
Alexandria Gazette
, May 10, 1836.

15
. William Lee Miller,
Arguing About Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress
(New York, 1996); Joel H. Silbey,
Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to the Civil War
(Oxford, UK, 2005), 10–14.

16
. Changes to the Treasury’s gold-silver exchange rate, plus overseas sales of slave-backed bonds, attracted specie, while the British trading practices that provoked the 1839–1843 Opium War unlocked Chinese “hoards” of silver. Peter Temin,
The Jacksonian Economy
(New York, 1969); Silbey,
Storm over Texas;
Burrell Fox to Elizabeth Neal, September 25, 1835, Neal Papers, SHC; R. T. Hoskins to Richard Brownrigg, December 19, 1835, Brownrigg Papers, SHC; H. P. Watson to A. B. Springs, January 24, 1836, Springs Papers, SHC.

17
. Isham Harrison to Thos. Harrison, June 16, 1834, Thos. Harrison to Jas. Harrison, January 4, 1836, October 20, 1836, August 28, 1836, James Harrison Papers, SHC; R. Hinton to Laurens Hinton, October 16, 1836, Laurens Hinton Papers, SHC; P. A. Bolling to Edm. Hubard, February 24, 1837, Fol. 72, Hubard Papers, SHC; William Ashley to Chester Ashley, April 10, 1836, Chester Ashley Papers, SHC.

18
. Ballard and Franklin to Jacob Bieller, Fol. 2/15, BIELLER; R. H. M. Davidson to Dear Brevard, November 8, 1836, Davidson Papers, SHC.

19
. Charles P. Kindleberger,
Manias, Panics, and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises
(New York, 1978); John K. Galbraith,
A Short History of Financial Euphoria
(New York, 1993). Free states also borrowed money to pump into local economies, e.g., Reginald C. McGrane,
Foreign Bondholders and American State Debts
(New York, 1935), 129.

20
. Byrne Hammond and Co. to Jackson, Riddle, March 26, 1836, JRC; John Cassidy,
Why Markets Fail: The Logic of Economic Calamities
(New York, 2009), 239; Henry Draft to Wm. Miller, June 4, 1835, John Fox Papers, Duke; Samuel Faulkner to Dear Fitz, September 2, 1835, Wm. Powell Papers, Duke.

21
. Henry Watson to Father, December 15, 1836, Henry Watson Papers, Duke;
New Orleans Price-Current
, August 20, 1836, Fol. 3, JRC; Thomas Harrison to James Harrison, August 28, 1836, Fol. 3, James Harrison Papers, SHC; Robert Carson to Henderson Forsyth, December 3, 1836, N. E. Matthews to H. Forsyth, March 31, 1836, John Forsyth Papers, Duke; Peter Martin to Susan Capehart, December 5, 1836, Capehart Papers, SHC.

22
. With 200,000 slaves at, on average, $1,000 each (sold or moved, they represented investment), $40 million in government land, $75 million in bank investments, plus removals and wars costing $50 million. Production totals from CHSUS, 4:110; T. Bennett to Jackson, Riddle, October 7, 1836, Fol. 7, JRC.

23
. “We had better take the market prices,” instead of holding out for a rise, ruminated a savvy Alabama planter: N. B. Nolwinther to J. S. Devereux, October 24, 1836, JSD; T. Bennett & Co. to Jackson, Riddle, October 7, 1836, Fol. 7, JRC; L. C. Gray and Esther K. Thompson,
History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860
(Washington, DC, 1933), 2:1027.

24
. CHSUS, 3:354 (land sales); Temin,
Jacksonian Economy
, 123; Richard Timberlake, “The Specie Circular and Distribution of the Surplus,”
Journal of Political Economy
68 (1960): 109–117. The belief that the Circular was solely responsible for economic troubles was created by Jackson’s Whig opponents. Daniel Walker Howe,
What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848
(New York, 2007), 503, presents a fairly undigested Whig version. Bank of England: Ralph Hidy,
The House of Baring in American Trade and Finance: English Merchant Bankers at Work, 1763–1861
(Cambridge, MA, 1949), 206–207.

25
. NOP, February 4, 1837, February 9, 1837; S. E. Phillips to J. A. Stevens, February 5, 1837, John A. Stevens Papers, NYHS; John Forsyth to Brother, February 19, 1837, John Forsyth Papers, Duke.

26
. Hidy,
House of Baring
, 214–219; Vol. 50, Brown Brothers, NYPL. For a recent cultural and political history of the Panic of 1837, see Jessica Lepler,
The Many Panics of 1837: People, Politics, and the Creation of a Transatlantic Financial Crisis
(New York, 2013).

27
. NOP, March 16, 1837, April 20, 1837; John Elliott to Lucy, April 8, 1837, Samuel Bryarly Papers, Duke; D. W. McLaurin to John McLaurin, April 10, 1837, Duncan McLaurin Papers, Duke; Vol. 50, Brown Brothers, NYPL.

28
. Albert Gallatin to J. A. Stevens, May 10, 1837, Fol. April–July 1837, John Stevens Papers, NYHS; “Comparative Statement . . . Banks of New Orleans, 1835 and 1836,” Fol. 5, Citizens’ Bank of Louisiana Records, Tulane; Champ Terry to Nathaniel Jeffries, October 15, 1836, Fol. 345, RCB.

29
. D. W. McKenzie to D. McLaurin, June 18, 1837, November 1, 1837, Duncan McLaurin Papers, Duke; Wm. Southgate to W. P. Smith, May 17, 1837, Wm. Smith Papers, Duke; J. Rowe to J. Cole, February 8, 1837, Cole-Taylor Papers, SHC.