The Fantastic Laboratory of Dr. Weigl: How Two Brave Scientists Battled Typhus and Sabotaged the Nazis (54 page)

“
Every communication and, indeed
”:
Ibid.

This was more likely
:
Ibid., 92–93; Fleck, “Über den Begriff der Art in der Bakteriologie,” in
Denkstile
, 91–125.

This was despite the fact
:
This and subsequent quotations are from Fleck,
Genesis
, 59–61, 41, 68–77.

Fleck was not the only
:
See “Max von Pettenkofer, 1818–1901,” at http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/contagion/vonpettenkofer.html.

But whereas the social
:
Weindling,
Epidemics
, 201–3.

Zeiss called his field
:
Thomas Werther, “Fleckfieberforschung im Deutschen Reich 1914–1945: Untersuchungen zur Beziehung zwischen Wissenschaft, Industrie und Politik unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der IG Farben” (PhD diss., Marburg University, 2004), 74–75, accessed at http://archiv.ub.uni-Marburg.de/diss/z2008/0157/pdf/dtw.pdf.

Geomedizin
was exactly
:
Fleck, “Wissenschaft und Umwelt” in
Denkstile
, 329.

In a 1944 journal
:
Joachim Mrugowsky, “Beiträge zur Geomedizin: Das Seuchenspektrum,”
Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektions-Krankheiten
(1944): 679–91.

He was responsible for
:
Weindling,
Epidemics
, 248–50.

In Eastern Europe, with its
:
Werther, “Fleckfieberforschung,” 74–75.

The louse, carrier of
:
Alex Bein, “The Jewish Parasite,”
Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook
9 (1964): 3–5, 19–37.

“
The Jew is a bacillus
”:
Werther, “Fleckfieberforschung,” 107.

The belief that certain cultures
:
Fleck,
Genesis
, 23.

Geomedizin
’s suggestion that Jews
:
Hugh Raffles, “Jews, Lice, and History,”
Public Culture
19 (2007), accessed at publicculture.org/articles/view/19/3/jews-lice-and-history/.

And there were legitimate cultural
:
Hirszfeld,
One Life
, xxxii.

Typhus wasn’t an inevitable
:
Friedrich Hansen,
Biologische Kriegsführung im Dritten Reich
(Frankfurt: Campus, 1993).

He was also a lifelong
:
Peter Eyer, interview with author, May 2011; Peter Eyer, personal communications.

As a faculty member
:
“Lebenslauf,” Dec. 27, 1943, BA-Berlin, VBS1 Signatur 1020025603.

He praised the anti-Semitic
:
Hermann Eyer, “Die Gesundheitspflege in ländlichen Grenzgebieten,”
Deutsches Ärzteblatt
68 (1938): 441–45.

After the annexation
:
Peter Eyer, interview with author.

Although Germany had been
:
Weindling,
Epidemics
, 331–32, 247; Weindling, “Between Bacteriology and Virology: The Development of Typhus Vaccines between the First and Second World Wars,”
History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
17 (1995): 81–90.

In 1938–39, physicians there
:
See http://www.pasteur.fr/infosci/archives/e_bla0.html.

At the outbreak of war
:
M. Ruiz Castañeda, “Experimental Pneumonia Produced by Typhus Rickettsiae,”
American Journal of Pathology
15 (1939): 467–76; Paul Giroud and Jean Jadin, “Conceptions actuelles concernant les rickettsioses et leur vaccinations,”
Annales de la Société Belge de Médicine Tropicale
3 (1961): 193–206.

Scientists in the United States
:
Herald Cox, “Epidemic and Endemic Typhus,”
Public Health Reports
55 (1940): 110–15; Cox, “Use of Yolk Sac of Developing Chick Embryo as Medium for Growing Rickettsiae of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever and Typhus Groups,” ibid., 53 (1938): 2241–49; Joseph Sadusk, “The Immunization of Troops with Typhus Vaccine and the Characteristics of Typhus in Immunized Individuals,”
Yale Journal of Medicine and Biology
21 (1949): 211–32.

In April 1939
:
Peter Eyer, interview with author.

At the Red Sea port
:
Giacomo Mariani, “La lotta contra le rickettsiosi umani nell’ AOI Africa orientale italiana,”
Opere per l’organizzazione civile in Africa orientale italiana
(1939): 59–66; Mariani, “Vaccinazioni contro il tifo esantematico eseguite nel 1938 sull’altipiano etiopico con il vaccino Weigl,”
Annali d’igiene
7 (1939): 316–22.

The same month
:
Blanc to Pistoni, PIA, BLA2.

He urged that the Weigl
:
Richard Pankhurst, “Some Notes for a History of Typhus in Ethiopia” (unpublished 1975 manuscript at Library of Congress), 1–27.

The possibility of a Nobel Prize
:
Kry
ski, “Cards 28,”
Reminiscences of an Old Professor
, accessed at lwow.home.pl/weigl/krynski.html; Wójcik, “Pakt z diablem” (Pact with the devil),
Przegl
d tygodniowy
4 (1994).

The university authorized a paid
:
Weigl papers in Lviv University archive, courtesy of Prof. Rostyslav Stoika.

The Italians reported
:
Pankhurst, “Notes,” 10.

Chapter 5: War and Epidemics

For his state medical
:
Erwin Ding, “Der Pavor nocturnus bei Kindern” (MD diss., University of Leipzig, 1937).

With his pregnant wife
:
Kogon,
Hell
, 265.

The SS leader Theodor
:
Richard J. Evans,
The Third Reich in Power
(New York: Penguin, 2005), 81–90.

The first glimpse
:
See, e.g., Ernst von Salomon,
The Captive: The Story of an Unknown Political Prisoner
(London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1961), 108; Shoah Foundation (all testimonies were viewed at the USHMM), 50467 Reidar Dittmann.

“
You took off your shoes
”:
Shoah Foundation, 17900 Horace Hecht.

Prisoners often puzzled
:
Waitz, “Auschwitz I Stammlager,” in
De l’université aux camps de concentration: Témoignages strasbourgeois
(Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1947), 438–39.

Himmler himself stated
:
See Hugh Raffles, “Jews, Lice, and History,” accessed at http://publicculture.org/articles/view/19/3/jews-lice-and-history/.

“
A few weeks in Buchenwald
”:
Walter Poller,
Medical Block, Buchenwald: The Personal Testimony of Inmate 996, Block 36
(Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart, 1960), 244–45, 212, 159–60.

Ding ably carried
:
Judith Hahn, G
rawitz, Genzken, Gebhardt: Drei Karrieren im Sanitätsdienst der SS
(Münster: Klemm & Oelschläger, 2008), 161.

The Reverend Paul Schneider
:
Poller,
Medical Block
, 201–6; 106–8; 246–49.

Meanwhile, Ding pressed on
:
Ding to Genzken, May 12, 1939, DGVG-Ding.

Three months later
:
“Lebenslauf,” July 15, 1939, DGVG-Ding.

On November 6, two weeks
:
Jochen August,
Sonderaktion Krakau: Die Verhaftung der Krakauer Wissenschaftler am 6. November 1939
(Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1997).

Around this same time
:
Sworn statements in support of Hermann Eyer’s release from British POW status, addressed to University of Bonn Medical School Dean Erich von Redwitz, in possession of Peter Eyer: Ortrud Kristen, Nov. 19, 1946; Robert Kudicke, Jan. 15, 1946; Hermann Eyer, Nov. 8, 1946.

Years later, there
:
Memo dated 10-06-1976 from Kraków to Warsaw, IPN Files, Przybyłkiewicz, 9828/II IPN KR 010/9659 Tome I Secret; also personnel file from Sept. 1953 in same folder.

Eyer had been told
:
Eyer to Redwitz, Nov. 8, 1946; H. Eyer, “Die Fleckfieberprophylaxe der deutschen Wehrmacht im 2. Weltkrieg,”
Wehrmedizin und Wehrpharmazie
(1979): 56–61.

He delivered his first batch
:
BA-Freiburg, RH12/23/archivsignatur357; Eyer, Tätigkeitsbericht des Instituts für Fleckfieber- und Virusforschung, 6/1–7/31, 1940.

In an accompanying pamphlet
:
Ibid., “Fleckfieber Merkblatt für Soldaten.”

Jews, he wrote
:
Ibid.; Eyer, “Die durch Läuse übertragbaren Infektionskranheiten und ihre Bekämpfung,”
Die Medizinische Welt
14 (1940): 261–64.

In Polish cities
:
Shoah Foundation, 14797 Lusia Hornstein.

The Nazi bombardment
:
Stefan Szende,
The Promise Hitler Kept
(New York: Roy, 1945), 1516; Frank Stiffel
, The Tale of the Ring: A Kaddish
(New York: Bantam Books, 1984), 13; Shoah Foundation, 7394 Alex Redner.

The Eastern Trade Fair
:
Wacław Szybalski, personal communication.

Three weeks of bombing
:
Christoph Mick,
Kriegserfahrungen in einer multiethnischen Stadt: Lemberg 1914–1947
(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011), 420.

For many sophisticated
:
Szende,
Promise
, 19, 29–31; Stiffel,
Tale
, 30; Shoah Foundation, Hornstein; Kurt I. Lewin,
A Journey through Illusions
(Santa Barbara: Fithian Press, 1994), 28–30; Szybalksi testimony; Karolina Lanckoronska, “Mut ist angeboren,” in Hermann Simon, Irene Stratenwerth, and Ronald Hinrichs, eds.,
Lemberg: Eine Reise nach Europa
(Berlin: Links Verlag, 2007), 70–73.

Although the invasion was tragic
:
Hornstein interview, USHHM; Zygfryd Atlas,
Just One Life
(Caulfield North: Rocham, 1999), 20.

In a kindergarten
:
Mali Karl,
Escape a la vida
(Lima: Pueblo Libre, 1989), 36; Nava Ruda,
Zum ewigen Andenken: Erinnerung eines Mädchens aus dem Ghetto Lwows, 1928–1999
(Konstanz: Hartung-Gorre, 2000), 10.

The majority of the 22,000
:
Dov Levin,
The Lesser of Two Evils: Eastern European Jewry under Soviet Rule, 1939–1941
, trans. Naftali Greenwood (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1995), 50, 196–97.

They lifted bans or limits
:
Omer Bartov,
Erased: Vanishing Traces of Jewish Galicia in Present-Day Ukraine
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 36–37.

More than 50,000
:
Szende,
Promise
, 19–20.

In November, there was a plebiscite
:
Ibid., 20–28.

Many died there
:
Ibid., 11–36.

Many young Jews
:
Stiffel,
Tale
, 30.

Lwów’s mathematicians
:
S. M. Ulam,
Adventures of a Mathematician
(New York: Scribner’s, 1976), 133.

The Soviets must have considered
:
YVA, International Tracing Service Documentation, Military Government of Germany, Concentration Camp Inmates Questionnaire: Ludwig [
sic
] Fleck, Inmate 4934; Ilana Löwy, “Ways of Seeing: Ludwik Fleck and Polish Debates on the Perception of Reality, 1890–1947,”
Studies in History and Philosophy of Science
39 (2008): 377; Thomas Schnelle, “Microbiology and Philosophy of Science, Lwów and the German Holocaust: Stations of a Life—Ludwik Fleck 1896–1961,” in
Cognition and Fact—Materials on Ludwik Fleck
, ed. Robert S. Cohen and Thomas Schnelle (Dordrecht: L. Reidel, 1986), 18.

Whatever the case
:
K. Leszczy
ska, “Ludwik Fleck: A Forgotten Philosopher,” in
Penser avec Fleck: Investigating a Life Studying Life Sciences
, ed. Johannes Fehr et al. (Zurich: Collegium Helveticum, 2009), 27; Franciszek Groer, “Nachruf auf Ludwik Fleck,” in
Denkstile,
643.