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Biological Psychology
68, 215–22. It should be noted that while effects were found in males, females showed a nonsignificant trend in the predicted direction. Furthermore, effects in males were specific to physical aggression, with no effects found for verbal aggression.

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Burton, L. A. (2009). Aggression, gender-typical childhood play, and a prenatal hormone index.
Social Behavior and Personality
37, 105–16. Again, males show significant effects, with females showing trends in the predicted direction.

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Liu, J., Portnoy, J. & Raine, A. (2010). Association between a marker for
prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children.
Development and Psychopathology
24, 771–82.

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Cousins, A. J., Fugère, M. A. & Franklin, M. (2009). Digit ratio (2D:4D), mate guarding, and physical aggression in dating couples.
Personality and Individual Differences
46, 709–13.

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Ibid.

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Coyne, S. M., Manning, J. T., Ringer, L. & Bailey, L. (2007). Directional asymmetry (right–left differences) in digit ratio (2D:4D) predict indirect aggression in women.
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Benderlioglu, Z. & Nelson, R. J. (2004). Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men.
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McIntyre, M. H., Barrett, E. A., McDermott, R., Johnson, D.D.P., Cowden, J., et al. (2007). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences in aggression during a simulated war game.
Personality and Individual Differences
42, 755–64.

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Psychiatric Clinics of North America
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McIntyre et al., Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences in aggression during a simulated war game.

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Smith, L. M., Cloak, C. C., Poland, R. E., Torday, J., Ross, M. G. (2003). Prenatal nicotine increases testosterone levels in the fetus and female offspring.
Nicotine & Tobacco Research
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Rizwan, S., Manning, J. T., Brabin, B. J. (2007). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and possible effects of in utero testosterone: Evidence from the 2D:4D finger length ratio.
Early Human Development
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Malas, M. A., Dogan, S., Evcil, E. H., Desdicioglu, K. (2006). Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D).
Early Human Development
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  77.
Brennan, P., Grekin, E. & Mednick, S. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes.
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56, 215–19.

  78.
Rantakallio, P., Laara, E., Isohanni, M. & Moilanen, I. (1992). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and delinquency of the offspring: An association without causation?
International Journal of Epidemiology
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Räsänen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Järvelin, M. R. & Tiihonen, J. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort.
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Weissman, M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P. & Kandel, D. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
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Wakschlag, L. & Hans, S. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and conduct problems in high-risk youth: A developmental framework.
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  82.
Wakschlag, L. S. & Keenan, K. (2001). Clinical Significance and Correlates of Disruptive Behavior in Environmentally At-Risk Preschoolers.
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Wakschlag, L., Lahey, B., Loeber, R., Green, S., Gordon, R., et al. (1997). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of conduct disorder in boys.
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Fergusson, D., Woodward, L. & Horwood, L. (1998). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychiatric adjustment in late adolescence.
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Button, T.M.M., Tharpar, A. & McGuffin, P. (2005). Relationship between antisocial behaviour, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal prenatal smoking.
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  87.
Although many studies have controlled for multiple confounds, including maternal and paternal antisocial behavior, it is still possible that genes could play a role. Antisocial mothers who smoke could pass their antisocial genes on to their children. One study using a twin design concluded that while there is certainly a smoking-antisocial relationship in children, it is almost entirely genetically mediated. Even in this study, authors caution that findings do not preclude an independent causal role of cigarette smoking in the genesis of child antisocial behavior; also, that findings are limited to young children, aged five to seven. They may not apply to adult offending and violence. See Maughan, B., Taylor, A., Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. E. (2004). Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems.
Archives of General Psychiatry
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  88.
Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. & Beauchaine, T. P. (2007). Direct and Passive Prenatal Nicotine Exposure and the Development of Externalizing Psychopathology.
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  89.
Olds, D. (1997). Tobacco exposure and impaired development: A review of the evidence.
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Neuropsychopharmacology
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Cornelius, M. D. & Day, N. L. (2009). Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco exposure.
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Batstra, L., Hadders-Algra, M. & Neeleman, J. (2003). Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood; prospective evidence from a Dutch birth cohort.
Early Human Development
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Levin, E. D., Wilkerson, A., Jones, J. P., Christopher, N. C. & Briggs, S. J. (1996). Prenatal nicotine effects on memory in rats: Pharmacological and behavioral challenges.
Developmental Brain Research
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Brain Research
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Huizink, A. C. & Mulder, E.J.H. (2006). Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
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Wikipedia,
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.

  98.
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation,
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.

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100.
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56, 317–26.

101.
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Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics
25, 228–38.

102.
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Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics
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103.
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Journal of Neuroscience
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104.
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106.
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SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome.
Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology
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107.
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7. A RECIPE FOR VIOLENCE

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    2.
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    3.
Dutch Famine of 1944:
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.

    4.
The examining physicians diagnosed antisocial personality disorder using the sixth edition of the
International Classification of Diseases
, and these diagnoses would be very similar to those used today in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders.

    5.
Neugebauer, R., Hoek, H. W. & Susser, E. (1999). Prenatal exposure to wartime famine and development of antisocial personality disorder in early adulthood.
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    8.
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  10.
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  14.
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  15.
Liu, J., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C. & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Malnutrition at age 3 years and lower cognitive ability at age 11: Independence from social adversity.
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  20.
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  21.
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  22.
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  23.
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  26.
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.

  28.
Protein deficiency is more of a problem in developing countries, but even in developed countries protein deficiency can be an issue in poor areas. Protein provides essential amino acids for the rapid growth of fetal tissue and plays an important role in the antioxidant system.

  29.
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Physiology & Behavior
62, 327–29. In this study zinc levels were low and copper levels were high. Copper is elevated because when zinc is low, there is more bioavailability for copper.

  33.
Tokdemir, M., Plota, S. A., Acik, Y., Gursu, F. & Cikim, G. (2003). Blood zinc and copper concentration in criminal and noncriminal schizophrenic men.
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  34.
Werbach, M. R. (1992). Nutritional influences on aggressive behavior.
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  35.
Rosen, G. M., Deinard, A. S., Schwartz, S., Smith, C., Stephenson, B., et al. (1985): Iron deficiency among incarcerated juvenile delinquents.
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Lozoff, B., Clark, K. M., Jing, Y., Armony-Sivan, R. & Jacobsen, S. W. (2008). Dose-response relationships between iron deficiency with or without
anemia and infant social-emotional behavior.
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  37.
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  38.
Bennis-Taleb, N., Remacle, C., Hoet, J. J. & Reusens, B. (1999). A low-protein isocaloric diet during gestation affects brain development and alters permanently cerebral cortex blood vessels in rat offspring.
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  40.
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  41.
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  42.
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  43.
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71, 1334–43.

  44.
Shea-Moore, M. M., Thomas, O. P. & Mench, J. A. (1996). Decreases in aggression in tryptophan-supplemented broiler breeder males are not due to increases in blood niacin levels.
Poultry Science
75, 370–74.

  45.
In many laboratories the 100-gram drink that depletes tryptophan contains a mix of fifteen amino acids, none of which are tryptophan. This increases protein synthesis in the liver, which reduces tryptophan in the plasma. In addition, these amino acids compete with tryptophan for transportation across the blood-brain barrier. Essentially, what tryptophan the participants have available to them is swamped out by the other amino acids. The placebo drink is exactly the same except that the drink is balanced with the appropriate amount of tryptophan.

  46.
Bond, A. J., Wingrove, J. & Critchlow, D. G. (2001). Tryptophan depletion increases aggression in women during the premenstrual phase.
Psychopharmacology
156, 477–80; Bjork, J. M., Dougherty, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Cherek, D. R. & Swann, A. C. (1999). The effects of tryptophan depletion and loading on laboratory aggression in men: Time course and a food-restricted control.
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  47.
Cherek, D. R., Lane, S. D., Pietras, C. J. & Steinberg, J. L. (2002). Effects of chronic paroxetine administration on measures of aggressive and impulsive
responses of adult males with a history of conduct disorder.
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Rubia, K., Lee, F., Cleare, A. J., Tunstall, N., Fu, C.H.Y., et al. (2005). Tryptophan depletion reduces right inferior prefrontal activation during response inhibition in fast, event-related fMRI.
Psychopharmacology
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Ledbetter, L. (1979). San Francisco Tense as Violence Follows Murder Trial.
New York Times
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  50.
White Night Riots:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_Riots
.

  51.
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White Night Riots:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Night_Riots
.

  53.
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  57.
Bolton, R. (1979). Hostility in fantasy: A further test of the hypoglycaemia-aggression hypothesis.
Aggressive Behavior
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  58.
For a review of these studies, see Venables & Raine, Biological theory.

  59.
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Virkkunen, M., Rissanen, A., Franssila-Kallunki, A. & Tiihonen, J. (2009). Low non-oxidative glucose metabolism and violent offending: An 8-year prospective follow-up study.
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Physiology and Behavior
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Moore, S. C., Carter, L. M. & van Goozen, S.H.M. (2009). Confectionery consumption in childhood and adult violence.
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