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Moore, T. M., Scarpa, A. & Raine, A. (2002). A meta-analysis of serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA and antisocial behavior.
Aggressive Behavior
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  79.
60 Minutes: Murder Gene
(2001). CBS television, February 27.

3. MURDEROUS MINDS

    1.
Kraft, R. “My Life,” chapter 5, Dad and the Fire. Death Row, California.
http://www.ccadp.org/randykraft.htm
.

    2.
McDougal, D. (1991).
Angel of Darkness
. New York: Warner Books.

    3.
Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. S. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography.
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    4.
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    8.
Bechara, A. & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision.
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    9.
Yang, Y. L. & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis.
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  10.
The specific subregions of the occipital cortex found to be overactivated in murderers were visual areas 17 and 18.

  11.
Understanding Murder: An Examination of the Etiology of Murder (2001)
. The Learning Channel and Cronkite-Ward Productions, August.

  12.
People vs. Antonio Bustamante
(1990–91). Case number: CR13160, Imperial County, Calif.

  13.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (2000). Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex.
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  14.
Understanding Murder
.

  15.
McDougal,
Angel of Darkness
.

  16.
Bechara & Damasio. The somatic marker hypothesis.

  17.
Kray, R. & Kray, R. (1989).
Reg and Ron Kray: Our Story
, p. 90. London: Pan Books.

  18.
Raine, A., Meloy, J. R., Bihrle, S., Stoddard, J., Lacasse, L., et al. (1998). Reduced prefrontal and increased subcortical brain functioning assessed using positron emission tomography in predatory and affective murderers.
Behavioral Sciences and the Law
16, 319–32.

  19.
It is not just that homicidal acts can have a mixture of proactive and reactive aggression. An offender’s criminal lifestyle can at times be at odds with their killing. Ron and Reggie Kray, for example, were organized gangsters who ruled the underworld in east London in the 1960s and 1970s, and participated in planned armed robberies and protection rackets. So while Reggie’s killing of Jack “the Hat” McVitie was reactive aggression in nature, his criminal lifestyle was predominantly proactive.

  20.
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  22.
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  23.
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  24.
Mirsky, A. F. & Siegel, A. (1994). The neurobiology of violence and aggression. In A. J. Reiss, K. A. Miczek, and J. A. Roth (eds.),
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, vol. 2,
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(pp. 59–172). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

  25.
Amen, D. G., Hanks, C., Prunella, J. R. & Green, A. (2007). An analysis of regional cerebral blood flow in impulsive murderers using single photon emission computed tomography.
Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
19, 304–9.

  26.
Despite the lack of functional imaging research on murderers, there is a small literature on structural imaging. See, for example, Yang, Y. L., Raine, A., Han, C. B., Schug, R. A., Toga, A. W., et al. (2010). Reduced hippocampal and parahippocampal volumes in murderers with schizophrenia.
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging
182, 9–13; Puri, B. K., Counsell, S. J., Saeed, N., Bustos, M. G., Treasaden, I. H., et al. (2008). Regional grey matter volumetric changes in forensic schizophrenia patients: An MRI study comparing the brain structure of patients who have seriously and violently offended with that of patients who have not.
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  27.
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  28.
Hoptman, M. J. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of violence and antisocial behavior.
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  29.
Gur, R. C., Ragland, J. D., Resnick, S. M., Skolnick, B. E., Jaggi, J., et al. (1994). Lateralized increases in cerebral blood flow during performance of verbal and spatial tasks: Relationship with performance level.
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  30.
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  31.
Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Halari, R., Matsukura, F., Mohammad, M., et al. (2009): Disorder-specific dissociation of orbitofrontal dysfunction in boys
with pure conduct disorder during reward and ventrolateral prefrontal dysfunction in boys with pure ADHD during sustained attention.
American Journal Psychiatry
166, 83–94.

  32.
Soderstrom, H., Tullberg, M., Wikkelso, C., Ekholm, S. & Forsman, A. (2000): Reduced regional cerebral blood flow in non-psychotic violent offenders.
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging
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  33.
Kiehl, K. A. (2006). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: Evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction.
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  34.
Muller, J. L., Sommer, M., Wagner, V., Lange, K., Taschler, H., et al. (2003). Abnormalities in emotion processing within cortical and subcortical regions in criminal psychopaths: Evidence from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study using pictures with emotional content.
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54, 152–62.

  35.
Amen, D. G., Hanks, C., Prunella, J. R. & Green, A. (2007). An analysis of regional cerebral blood flow in impulsive murderers using single photon emission computed tomography.
Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
19, 304–9.

  36.
Raine, A., Ishikawa, S. S., Arce, E., Lencz, T., Knuth, K. H., et al. (2004). Hippocampal structural asymmetry in unsuccessful psychopaths.
Biological Psychiatry
55, 185-91.

  37.
Raine, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., et al. (2005). Neurocognitive impairments in boys on the life-course persistent antisocial path.
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114, 38–49.

  38.
Boccardi, M., Ganzola, R., Rossi, R., Sabattoli, F., Laakso, M. P., et al. (2010). Abnormal hippocampal shape in offenders with psychopathy.
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  39.
Swanson, L. W. (1999). Limbic system. In G. Adelman & B. H. Smith (eds.),
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, pp. 1053–55. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

  40.
Gregg, T. R. & Siegel, A. (2001). Brain structures and neurotransmitters regulating aggression in cats: Implications for human aggression.
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25, 91–140.

  41.
Kiehl, K. A., Smith, A. M., Hare, R. D., Mendrek, A., Forster, B. B., Brink, J. & Liddle, P. F. (2001). Limbic abnormalities in affective processing by criminal psychopaths as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging.
Biological Psychiatry
50, 677–84.

  42.
Rubia, K., Halari, R., Smith, A. B., Mohammed, M., Scott, S., et al. (2008): Dissociated functional brain abnormalities of inhibition in boys with pure conduct disorder and in boys with pure attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
American Journal of Psychiatry
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  43.
New, A. S., Hazlett, E. A., Buchsbaum, M. S., Goodman, M., Reynolds, D., et al. (2002): Blunted prefrontal cortical (18)fluorodeoxyglucose positron
emission tomography response to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine in impulsive aggression.
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  44.
Maratos, E. J., Dolan, R. J., Morris, J. S., Henson, R.N.A. & Rugg, M. D. (2001). Neural activity associated with episodic memory for emotional context.
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  45.
Mayberg, H. S., Liotti, M., Brannan, S. K., McGinnis, S., Mahurin, R. K., et al. (1999). Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: Converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness.
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  46.
Ochsner, K. N. et al. (2005). The neural correlates of direct and reflected self-knowledge.
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  47.
Fagan, J. (1989). Cessation of family violence: Deterrence and dissuasion. In L. Ohlin & M. Tonry (eds.),
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, pp. 377–425. Chicago: University of Chicago.

  48.
Wilt, S. & Olson, S. (1996). Prevalence of domestic violence in the United States.
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  49.
Guth, A. A. & Pachter, L. (2000). Domestic violence and the trauma surgeon.
American Journal of Surgery
179, 134–40; Hamby, J. M. & Koss, M. P. (2003). Violence against women: Risk factors, consequences, and prevalence. In J. M. Leibschutz, S. M. Frayne & G. M. Saxe (eds.),
Violence Against Women: A Physician’s Guide to Identification and Management
, pp. 3–38. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians.

  50.
Pihlajamaki, M., Tanila, H., Kononen, M., et al. (2005). Distinct and overlapping fMRI activation networks for processing of novel identities and locations of objects.
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  51.
Sevostianov, A., Horwitz, B., Nechaev, V., et al. (2002). fMRI study comparing names versus pictures of objects.
Human Brain Mapping
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  52.
George, D. T., Phillips, M. J., Doty, L., Umhau, J. C. & Rawlings, R. R. (2006): A model linking biology, behavior, and psychiatric diagnoses in perpetrators of domestic violence.
Medical Hypotheses
67, 345–53.

  53.
Ibid.

  54.
Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E., Webb, S. A. & Graham, K. H. (2004). A second failure to replicate the Gottman et al. (1995) typology of men who abuse intimate partners … and possible reasons why.
Journal of Family Psychology
18, 396–400.

  55.
We are not the only group to be thinking along these lines. Others have hypothesized that spouse-abusers are hypersensitive to emotional stimuli that could be interpreted as threatening, such as slights and signs of disapproval, resulting in increased negative emotionality and reacting out of proportion to the social context. See George, D. T., Rawlings, R. R., Williams, W. A., Phillips, M. J., Fong, G., et al. (2004). A select group of perpetrators of domestic violence: Evidence of decreased metabolism
in the right hypothalamus and reduced relationships between cortical/subcortical brain structures in position emission tomography.
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging
130, 11–25; also Babcock et al., A second failure to replicate the Gottman et al. (1995) typology.

  56.
Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E. & Robieb, C. (2004). Does batterers’ treatment work? A meta-analytic review of domestic violence treatment.
Clinical Psychology Review
23, 1023–53.

  57.
Twain, M. (1882).
On the Decay of the Art of Lying
. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company.

  58.
Very sadly, Sean Spence died prematurely, at the age of forty-eight, on Christmas Day, 2010, after suffering a long illness. He was a highly creative and energetic scientist that many of us miss.

  59.
Lee, T.M.C., Liu, H. L., Tan, L. H., Chan, C.C.H., Mahankali, S., et al. (2002). Lie detection by functional magnetic resonance imaging.
Human Brain Mapping
15, 157–64.

  60.
Spence, S. A., Farrow, T.F.D., Herford, A. E., Wilkinson, I. D., Zheng, Y., et al. (2001). Behavioural and functional anatomical correlates of deception in humans.
NeuroReport
12, 2849–53.

  61.
Langleben, D. D., Schroeder, L., Maldjian, J. A., Gur, R. C., McDonald, S., et al. (2002). Brain activity during simulated deception: An event-related functional magnetic resonance study.
NeuroImage
15, 727–32.

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