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Authors: Ray Kurzweil
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The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence (58 page)
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11
Lambertus Hesselink’s research is reported by Phillip F. Schewe and Ben Stein in Physics News Update (no. 219; March 28, 1995). The description is available online at <
http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1995/split/pnu219-2.htm
>.
Lambertus Hesselink’s research is reported by Phillip F. Schewe and Ben Stein in Physics News Update (no. 219; March 28, 1995). The description is available online at <
http://www.aip.org/enews/physnews/1995/split/pnu219-2.htm
>.
12
For information on nanotubes and buckyballs, read Janet Rae-Dupree’s article “Nanotechnology Could Be Foundation for Next Mechanical Revolution,” Knight-Ridder/ Tribune News Service, December 17, 1997, p. 1217K1133.
For information on nanotubes and buckyballs, read Janet Rae-Dupree’s article “Nanotechnology Could Be Foundation for Next Mechanical Revolution,” Knight-Ridder/ Tribune News Service, December 17, 1997, p. 1217K1133.
13
Dr. Sumio Iijima’s research on nanotubes is summarized in the following article at the NEC site, <
http://www.tabs.nec.co.jp/rdtetter/tetter01/indexl.html
>.
Dr. Sumio Iijima’s research on nanotubes is summarized in the following article at the NEC site, <
http://www.tabs.nec.co.jp/rdtetter/tetter01/indexl.html
>.
14
The research of Isaac Chuang and Neil Gershenfeld is reported in “Cue the Qubits: Quantum Computing,” The Economist 342, no. 8005 (February 22, 1997): 91-92; and in an article by Dan Vergano, “Brewing a Quantum Computer in a Coffee Cup,” Science News 151, no. 3 (January 18, 1997): 37. More technical details and a list of Chuang and Gershenfeld’s publications can be found at the Physics and Media Group/MIT Media Lab <
http://physics.www.media.mit.edu/publications/
> and at the Los Alamos National Laboratory <
http://qso.lanl.gov/qc/
>.
The research of Isaac Chuang and Neil Gershenfeld is reported in “Cue the Qubits: Quantum Computing,” The Economist 342, no. 8005 (February 22, 1997): 91-92; and in an article by Dan Vergano, “Brewing a Quantum Computer in a Coffee Cup,” Science News 151, no. 3 (January 18, 1997): 37. More technical details and a list of Chuang and Gershenfeld’s publications can be found at the Physics and Media Group/MIT Media Lab <
http://physics.www.media.mit.edu/publications/
> and at the Los Alamos National Laboratory <
http://qso.lanl.gov/qc/
>.
Other groups working on quantum computation include the Information Mechanics group at MIT’s Lab for Computer Science <
http://www-im.lcs.mit.edu/
> and the Quantum Computation Group at IBM <
http://www.research.ibm.com/quantuminfo/
>.
http://www-im.lcs.mit.edu/
> and the Quantum Computation Group at IBM <
http://www.research.ibm.com/quantuminfo/
>.
15
“Student Cracks Encryption Code,” USA Today Tech Report, September 2, 1997.
“Student Cracks Encryption Code,” USA Today Tech Report, September 2, 1997.
16
Mark Buchanan, “Light’s Spooky Connections Set Distance Record,” New Scientist, June 28, 1997.
Mark Buchanan, “Light’s Spooky Connections Set Distance Record,” New Scientist, June 28, 1997.
17
Roger Penrose, The
Emperor’s
New Mind (New York: Penguin USA, 1990).
Roger Penrose, The
Emperor’s
New Mind (New York: Penguin USA, 1990).
18
To understand the concept of tunneling, it is important to understand how transistors on an integrated circuit chip work. An integrated chip is engraved with circuits comprised of thousands or millions of transistors, which electronic devices use to control the flow of electricity. Transistors are made up of a small block of a semiconductor, a material that acts as both an insulator and a conductor of electricity. The first transistors were comprised of germanium and were later replaced with silicon.
To understand the concept of tunneling, it is important to understand how transistors on an integrated circuit chip work. An integrated chip is engraved with circuits comprised of thousands or millions of transistors, which electronic devices use to control the flow of electricity. Transistors are made up of a small block of a semiconductor, a material that acts as both an insulator and a conductor of electricity. The first transistors were comprised of germanium and were later replaced with silicon.
Transistors work by holding a pattern of electric charge, allowing that pattern of charge to change millions of times every second. Tunneling refers to the ability of electrons (small particles that circle around the nucleus of an atom) to move or. “tunnel” through the silicon. Electrons are said to tunnel through the barrier as a result of the quantum uncertainty as to which side of the barrier they are actually on.
19
Knowledge chunks would be greater than the number of distinct words because words are used in more than one way and with more than one meaning. Each different word meaning or usage is often referred to as a word “sense.” It is likely that Shakespeare used more than 100,000 word senses.
Knowledge chunks would be greater than the number of distinct words because words are used in more than one way and with more than one meaning. Each different word meaning or usage is often referred to as a word “sense.” It is likely that Shakespeare used more than 100,000 word senses.
20
Quoted from Douglas R. Hofstadter,
Gödel, Escher,
Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Basic Books, 1979).
Quoted from Douglas R. Hofstadter,
Gödel, Escher,
Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid (New York: Basic Books, 1979).
21
Michael Winerip, “Schizophrenia’s Most Zealous Foe,” New York Sunday Times, February 22, 1998.
Michael Winerip, “Schizophrenia’s Most Zealous Foe,” New York Sunday Times, February 22, 1998.
22
The goal of the Visible Human Project is to create highly detailed, three-dimensional views of the male and female human body. The project is collecting transverse CT, MRI, and cryosection images. The web site is located at <
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html>
.
The goal of the Visible Human Project is to create highly detailed, three-dimensional views of the male and female human body. The project is collecting transverse CT, MRI, and cryosection images. The web site is located at <
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html>
.
23
Researchers Mark Hübener, Doron Shoham, Amiram Grinvald, and Tobias Bonhoeffer published their experiments on optical imaging in “Spatial Relationships among Three Columnar Systems in Cat Area 17,” Journal of Neuroscience 17 (1997): 9270-9284.
Researchers Mark Hübener, Doron Shoham, Amiram Grinvald, and Tobias Bonhoeffer published their experiments on optical imaging in “Spatial Relationships among Three Columnar Systems in Cat Area 17,” Journal of Neuroscience 17 (1997): 9270-9284.
More information on this and other brain-imaging research is located at the Weizmann Institute’s web site <
http://wwwweizmann.ac.il/
> and at Amiram Grinvald’s web site <
http://www.weizmann.ac.il/brain/grinvald/grinvald.htm
>.
http://wwwweizmann.ac.il/
> and at Amiram Grinvald’s web site <
http://www.weizmann.ac.il/brain/grinvald/grinvald.htm
>.
24
The work of Dr. Benebid and other researchers is summarized in an online article, “Neural Prosthetics Come of Age as Research Continues,” by Robert Finn, The Scientist 11, no. 19 (September 29, 1997): 13, 16. This article may be found at <
http://www.the-scientist.library.upenn.edu/yr1997/sept/research_970929.html
>.
The work of Dr. Benebid and other researchers is summarized in an online article, “Neural Prosthetics Come of Age as Research Continues,” by Robert Finn, The Scientist 11, no. 19 (September 29, 1997): 13, 16. This article may be found at <
http://www.the-scientist.library.upenn.edu/yr1997/sept/research_970929.html
>.
25
From an April 1998 phone interview by the author with Dr. Trosch.
From an April 1998 phone interview by the author with Dr. Trosch.
26
Dr. Rizzo’s research is also reviewed in Finn’s article, “Neural Prosthetics Come of Age as Research Continues.”
Dr. Rizzo’s research is also reviewed in Finn’s article, “Neural Prosthetics Come of Age as Research Continues.”
27
To read more about the “neuron transistor,” visit the web site of the Membrane and Neurophysics Department at the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry <
http://mnphys.biochem.mpg.de/
>.
To read more about the “neuron transistor,” visit the web site of the Membrane and Neurophysics Department at the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry <
http://mnphys.biochem.mpg.de/
>.
28
Robert Finn, “Neural Prosthetics Come of Age as Research Continues.”
Robert Finn, “Neural Prosthetics Come of Age as Research Continues.”
29
Carver Mead’s research is described at <
http://www.pcmp.caltech.edu/
>.
Carver Mead’s research is described at <
http://www.pcmp.caltech.edu/
>.
30
W B. Yeats, “Sailing to Byzantium,” from Selected Poems and Two Plays of William Butler Yeats, edited by M. L. Rosenthal (New York: Macmillan, 1966).
W B. Yeats, “Sailing to Byzantium,” from Selected Poems and Two Plays of William Butler Yeats, edited by M. L. Rosenthal (New York: Macmillan, 1966).
1
Herbert Dreyfus is well known for his critique of artificial intelligence in his book What Computers Can’t Do: The Limits of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Harper and Row, 1979). Other theorists who may be considered to support the mind-beyond-machine perspective include J. R. Lucas and John Searle. See J. R. Lucas’s “Minds, Ma . chines and Gödel,” Philosophy 36 (1961): 120-124; and John Searle’s “Mind, Brains, and Programs,” The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3 (1980): 417-424. Also, see Searle’s more recent book The Rediscovery of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
Herbert Dreyfus is well known for his critique of artificial intelligence in his book What Computers Can’t Do: The Limits of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Harper and Row, 1979). Other theorists who may be considered to support the mind-beyond-machine perspective include J. R. Lucas and John Searle. See J. R. Lucas’s “Minds, Ma . chines and Gödel,” Philosophy 36 (1961): 120-124; and John Searle’s “Mind, Brains, and Programs,” The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3 (1980): 417-424. Also, see Searle’s more recent book The Rediscovery of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
2
“Researchers led by Dr. Clifford Steer at the University of Minnesota Medical School report in the current Nature Medicine that they have eliminated the need for viruses by harnessing the body’s own genetic repair processes. In a landmark proof-of-concept experiment, the Minnesota team permanently altered a blood-clotting gene in 40 percent of the liver cells in a group of rats. The researchers started by splicing their DNA patch into a slip of RNA. Then they encased the hybrid molecule in a protective coating, laced it with sugars that seek out liver cells, and injected it into lab rats. True to plan, the hybrid molecules zeroed in on the targeted gene and lined up alongside it. An enzyme in the rats’ own liver cells did the rest: Whenever it spotted a mismatched DNA, it simply removed the offending DNA and stitched in a replacement. Now the trick is to show that it will work with other tissues—and other species.” From “DNA Therapy: The New, Virus-Free Way to Make Genetic Repairs.” Time, March 16, 1998.
“Researchers led by Dr. Clifford Steer at the University of Minnesota Medical School report in the current Nature Medicine that they have eliminated the need for viruses by harnessing the body’s own genetic repair processes. In a landmark proof-of-concept experiment, the Minnesota team permanently altered a blood-clotting gene in 40 percent of the liver cells in a group of rats. The researchers started by splicing their DNA patch into a slip of RNA. Then they encased the hybrid molecule in a protective coating, laced it with sugars that seek out liver cells, and injected it into lab rats. True to plan, the hybrid molecules zeroed in on the targeted gene and lined up alongside it. An enzyme in the rats’ own liver cells did the rest: Whenever it spotted a mismatched DNA, it simply removed the offending DNA and stitched in a replacement. Now the trick is to show that it will work with other tissues—and other species.” From “DNA Therapy: The New, Virus-Free Way to Make Genetic Repairs.” Time, March 16, 1998.
3
Hans Moravec, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), p. 108.
Hans Moravec, Mind Children: The Future of Robot and Human Intelligence (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), p. 108.
4
Ralph Merkle’s comments on nanotechnology can be found in an overview at his web site at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center <
http://sandbox.xerox.com/nano
>. His site contains links to important publications on nanotechnology, such as Richard Feynman’s 1959 talk and Eric Drexler’s dissertation, as well as links to various research centers that focus on nanotechnology.
Ralph Merkle’s comments on nanotechnology can be found in an overview at his web site at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center <
http://sandbox.xerox.com/nano
>. His site contains links to important publications on nanotechnology, such as Richard Feynman’s 1959 talk and Eric Drexler’s dissertation, as well as links to various research centers that focus on nanotechnology.
5
Richard Feynman presented these ideas on December 29, 1959, at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech). His talk was first published in the February 1960 issue of Cal Tech’s Engineering and Science. This article is available online at <
http://nano.xerox.com/nanotech/feynman.html
>.
Richard Feynman presented these ideas on December 29, 1959, at the annual meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech). His talk was first published in the February 1960 issue of Cal Tech’s Engineering and Science. This article is available online at <
http://nano.xerox.com/nanotech/feynman.html
>.
6
Eric Drexler, Engines of Creation (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1986). The book is also accessible online from the Xerox nanotechnology site <
http://sandbox.xerox.com/nano
> and also from Drexler’s web site at the Foresight Institute <
http://www. foresight. org/EOC/index.html
>.
Eric Drexler, Engines of Creation (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1986). The book is also accessible online from the Xerox nanotechnology site <
http://sandbox.xerox.com/nano
> and also from Drexler’s web site at the Foresight Institute <
http://www. foresight. org/EOC/index.html
>.
7
Eric Drexler, Nanosystems:
Molecular
Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1992).
Eric Drexler, Nanosystems:
Molecular
Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1992).
8
According to Nanothinc’s web site <
http://www.nanothinc.com/
>, “Nanotechnology, broadly defined to include a number of nanoscale-related activities and disciplines, is a global industry in which more than 300 companies generate over $5 billion in annual revenues today—and $24 billion in 4 years.” Nanothinc includes a list of companies and revenues upon which the figure is based. Some of the nanoapplications generating revenues are micromachines, microelectromechanical systems, autofabrication, nanolithography, nanotechnology tools, scanning probe microscopy, software, nanoscale materials, and nanophase materials.
According to Nanothinc’s web site <
http://www.nanothinc.com/
>, “Nanotechnology, broadly defined to include a number of nanoscale-related activities and disciplines, is a global industry in which more than 300 companies generate over $5 billion in annual revenues today—and $24 billion in 4 years.” Nanothinc includes a list of companies and revenues upon which the figure is based. Some of the nanoapplications generating revenues are micromachines, microelectromechanical systems, autofabrication, nanolithography, nanotechnology tools, scanning probe microscopy, software, nanoscale materials, and nanophase materials.
9
Richard Smalley’s publications and work on nanotechnology can be found at the web site for the Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University
Richard Smalley’s publications and work on nanotechnology can be found at the web site for the Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University
10
For information on the use of nanotechnology in creating IBM’s corporate logo, read Faye Flam, “Tiny Instrument Has Big Implications.” Knight-Ridder/Tribute News Service, August 11, 1997, p. 811K7204.
For information on the use of nanotechnology in creating IBM’s corporate logo, read Faye Flam, “Tiny Instrument Has Big Implications.” Knight-Ridder/Tribute News Service, August 11, 1997, p. 811K7204.
11
Dr. Jeffrey Sampsell at Texas Instruments has written a white paper summarizing research on micromirrors, available at <
http://www.ti.com/dlp/docs/it/resources/white/overview/over.shtml
>.
Dr. Jeffrey Sampsell at Texas Instruments has written a white paper summarizing research on micromirrors, available at <
http://www.ti.com/dlp/docs/it/resources/white/overview/over.shtml
>.
12
A description of the flying machines can be found at the web site of the MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) and Fluid Dynamics Research Group at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) <
http://ho.seas.ucla.edu/new/main.htm
>.
A description of the flying machines can be found at the web site of the MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) and Fluid Dynamics Research Group at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) <
http://ho.seas.ucla.edu/new/main.htm
>.
13
Xerox’s nanotechnology research is described in Brian Santo, “Smart Matter Program Embeds Intelligence by Combining Sensing, Actuation, Computation—Xerox Builds on Sensor Theory for Smart Materials.” EETimes (March 23, 1998):129. More information on this research can be found at the web site for the Smart Matter Research Group at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center at <
http://www.parc.xerox.com/spl/projects/smart-matter/
> .
Xerox’s nanotechnology research is described in Brian Santo, “Smart Matter Program Embeds Intelligence by Combining Sensing, Actuation, Computation—Xerox Builds on Sensor Theory for Smart Materials.” EETimes (March 23, 1998):129. More information on this research can be found at the web site for the Smart Matter Research Group at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center at <
http://www.parc.xerox.com/spl/projects/smart-matter/
> .
14
For information on the use of nanotechnology in creating the nanoguitar, read Faye Flam, “Tiny Instrument Has Big Implications.” Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service.
For information on the use of nanotechnology in creating the nanoguitar, read Faye Flam, “Tiny Instrument Has Big Implications.” Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service.
15
Learn more about the Chelyabinsk region by visiting the web site dedicated to helping the people living in that area at <
http://www.logtv.com/chelya/chel.html
>.
Learn more about the Chelyabinsk region by visiting the web site dedicated to helping the people living in that area at <
http://www.logtv.com/chelya/chel.html
>.
16
For more about the story behind Space War, see “A History of Computer Games,” Computer Gaming World (November 1991): 16-26; and Eric S. Raymond, ed., New Hacker’s Dictionary (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Space War was developed by Steve Russell in 1961 and implemented by him on the PDP-1 at MIT a year later.
For more about the story behind Space War, see “A History of Computer Games,” Computer Gaming World (November 1991): 16-26; and Eric S. Raymond, ed., New Hacker’s Dictionary (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992). Space War was developed by Steve Russell in 1961 and implemented by him on the PDP-1 at MIT a year later.
17
Medical Learning Company is a joint venture between the American Board of Family Practice (an organization that certifies the sixty thousand family practice physicians in the United States) and Kurzweil Technologies. The goal of the company is to develop educational software for continuing medical education of physicians as well as other markets. A key aspect of the technology will include an interactive simulated patient that can be examined, interviewed, and treated.
Medical Learning Company is a joint venture between the American Board of Family Practice (an organization that certifies the sixty thousand family practice physicians in the United States) and Kurzweil Technologies. The goal of the company is to develop educational software for continuing medical education of physicians as well as other markets. A key aspect of the technology will include an interactive simulated patient that can be examined, interviewed, and treated.
18
Hall’s Utility Fog concept is described in J. Storrs Hall, “Utility Fog Part 1,” Extropy, issue no. 13 (vol. 6, no. 2), third quarter 1994; and J. Storrs Hall, “Utility Fog Part 2,” Extropy, issue no. 14 (vol. 7, no. 1), first quarter 1995. Also see Jim Wilson, “Shrinking Micromachines: A New Generation of Tools Will Make Molecule-Size Machines a Reality.” Popular Mechanics 174, no. 11 (November 1997): 55-58.
Hall’s Utility Fog concept is described in J. Storrs Hall, “Utility Fog Part 1,” Extropy, issue no. 13 (vol. 6, no. 2), third quarter 1994; and J. Storrs Hall, “Utility Fog Part 2,” Extropy, issue no. 14 (vol. 7, no. 1), first quarter 1995. Also see Jim Wilson, “Shrinking Micromachines: A New Generation of Tools Will Make Molecule-Size Machines a Reality.” Popular Mechanics 174, no. 11 (November 1997): 55-58.
19
Mark Yim, “Locomotion with a Unit-Modular Reconfigurable Robot,” Stanford University Technical Report STAN-CS-TR-95-1536.
Mark Yim, “Locomotion with a Unit-Modular Reconfigurable Robot,” Stanford University Technical Report STAN-CS-TR-95-1536.
20
Joseph Michael, UK Patent #94004227.2.
Joseph Michael, UK Patent #94004227.2.
21
For examples of early “prurient” text publications, see A History of Erotic Literature by Patrick J. Kearney (Hong Kong, 1982); and History Laid Bare by Richard Zachs (New York: HarperCollins, 1994).
For examples of early “prurient” text publications, see A History of Erotic Literature by Patrick J. Kearney (Hong Kong, 1982); and History Laid Bare by Richard Zachs (New York: HarperCollins, 1994).
22
Upside Magazine, April 1998.
Upside Magazine, April 1998.
23
For example, the “TFUI” (Touch-and-Feel User Interface) from pixis, as used in their Diva and Space Sirens series of CD-ROMs.
For example, the “TFUI” (Touch-and-Feel User Interface) from pixis, as used in their Diva and Space Sirens series of CD-ROMs.
24
From “Who Needs Jokes? Brain Has a Ticklish Spot,” Malcolme W Browne, New York Times, March 10, 1998. Also see I. Fried (with C. L. Wilson, K. A. MacDonald, and E. J. Behnke), “Electric Current Stimulates Laughter,” Scientific Correspondence 391: 650, 1998.
From “Who Needs Jokes? Brain Has a Ticklish Spot,” Malcolme W Browne, New York Times, March 10, 1998. Also see I. Fried (with C. L. Wilson, K. A. MacDonald, and E. J. Behnke), “Electric Current Stimulates Laughter,” Scientific Correspondence 391: 650, 1998.
25
K. Blum et al., “Reward Deficiency Syndrome,” American Scientist, March-April, 1996.
K. Blum et al., “Reward Deficiency Syndrome,” American Scientist, March-April, 1996.
BOOK: The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence
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