1
Malcolm Byrne, ed.,
The 1956 Hungarian Revolution: A History in Documents
(Washington, D.C.: National Security Archives Electronic Briefing Book, 2002);
New York Times
, Nov. 1, 1956, 38.
2
New York Times
, Nov. 4, 1956, 1.
3
Byrne,
1956 Hungarian Revolution
, 3â4.
5
T. H. English,
Havana Nocturne: How the Mob Owned Cubaâand Then Lost It to the Revolution
(New York: William Morrow, 2007), xvâxvii.
6
Ryan's account of bullying by Cuban government troops is corroborated by Rex Lake, “Rex's Masterpiece.” Lake lived in Caimanera from November 1956 to August 1958, and recounts numerous incidents of drunken Cuban soldiers randomly discharging their weapons in the direction of innocent civilians.
7
Samuel Farber,
Revolution and Reaction in Cuba, 1933â1960: A Political Sociology from Machado to Castro
(Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press,
1976), 138; Louis A. Pérez, Jr.,
Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 284â87.
8
Pérez,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 284â88, Jorge DomÃnguez,
Cuba: Order and Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 108.
9
Farber,
Revolution and Reaction in Cuba
, 160â62; Louis A. Pérez, “Cuba, c. 1930â1959,” in Leslie Bethell, ed.,
Cuba: A Short History
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 83â84.
10
Farber,
Revolution and Reaction in Cuba
, 180â91; Pérez, “Cuba,” 86â91.
11
The story of Cuban labor on the naval base is expertly described by Jana K. Lipman,
Guantánamo: A Working-Class History Between Empire and Revolution
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 39 and passim.
12
Lipman,
Guantánamo
, 16, 36â68.
21
The following section is based on telephone interviews with Charles Ryan (Oct. 8 and 9, 2009) and Victor Buehlman (Oct. 14, 2009). Cf. Ramón L. Bonachea and Marta San MartÃn,
The Cuban Insurrection, 1952â1959
(New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1974); Thomas G. Paterson,
Contesting the Cuban Revolution: The U.S. and the Trampling of the Cuban Republic
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Julia E. Sweig,
Inside the Cuban Revolution: Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002); and Van Gosse,
Where the Boys Are: Cuba, Cold War America and the Making of a New Left
(New York: Verso, 1993).
22
Author interview, Kevin N. Caffrey, Veteran, U.S. Marine Corps, Feb. 12, 2010, Cambridge, Mass.
23
Bonachea and San Martin,
The Cuban Insurrection,
93.
24
“3 U.S. Youths Missing,”
New York Times
, March 8, 1957, 5.
25
“U.S. Studying the Case of 3 Youths in Cuba,”
New York Times
, March 31, 1957, 5.
26
“Batista Says Foes Have Quit Hideout,”
New York Times
, March 31, 1957, 5; “Cuban Colonel: They're Not There,”
New York Times
, April 13, 1957, 12.
27
Time
magazine, March 18, 1957.
28
Louis A. Pérez,
Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy
(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), 235; Bonachea and San MartÃn,
The Cuban Insurrection
, 244â45.
29
Telegram from Commander of the Naval Base at Guantánamo (Ellis) to the Chief of Naval Operations (Burke), June 30, 1958, FRUS, Cuba, 1958, 119.
30
Lake, “Rex's Masterpiece.”
33
Bonachea and San MartÃn,
The Cuban Insurrection
, 245; Tad Szulc,
Fidel: A Critical Portrait
(New York: William Morrow, 1986), 438â39.
34
Szulc,
Fidel: A Critical Portrait
, 439.
35
Wollam quoted in telegram from the embassy in Cuba to the Department of State, July 3, 1958, FRUS, Cuba, 1958, 127.
36
See two telegrams from the embassy in Cuba to the Department of State, both dated July 3, 1958, FRUS, Cuba, 1958, vol. VI, 125â26.
38
Memorandum from the Chief of Naval Operations (Burke) to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 10, 1958, FRUS, 1958â60, Cuba, vol. VI, 140.
39
Nixon and Dulles quoted in Lars Schoultz,
Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 351â53. Cf. Greg Grandin,
Empire's Workshop: Latin America, the United States and the Rise of the New Imperialism
(New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 42â45.
40
See, for example, Memorandum from the Acting Secretary of State to the President, Dec. 23, 1958, FRUS, vol. VI, 1958â1960, 304â307.
41
Sweig,
Inside the Cuban Revolution
, 59.
42
Telegram from the embassy in Cuba to the Department of State, July 13, 1958, FRUS, Cuba, vol. VI, 152.
43
Telegram from the embassy in Cuba to the Department of State, July 13, 1958, FRUS, vol. VI, 153â54; telegram from the embassy in Cuba to the Department of State, July 12, 1958, FRUS, Cuba, vol. VI, 149.
44
Memorandum of Discussion at the 392nd Meeting of the National Security Council, Washington, D.C., December 23, 1958, FRUS, 1958â1960, vol. VI, 302â303.
45
Farber,
Revolution and Reaction in Cuba
, 198â201; Gary Prevost, “Cuba,” in Harry E. Vanden and Gary Prevost, eds.,
Politics of Latin America: The Power Game
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 325â34; and Pérez, “Cuba,” 92.
46
Memorandum of Conversation, Department of State, Washington, D.C., Jan. 9, 1959, FRUS, 109.
47
Stephen G. Rabe,
Eisenhower and Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anticommunism
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 117â18.
48
Memorandum of Conversation, Department of State, Washington, D.C., Jan. 9, 1959, FRUS, 366.
49
Hugh Thomas,
Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom
(New York: Da Capo, 1998), 1198, 1256â57; Farber,
Revolution and Reaction in Cuba
, 216; Prevost, “Cuba,” 334â35; Jorge DomÃnguez, “Cuba Since 1959,” in Leslie Bethell, ed.,
Cuba: A Short History
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 98â99.
50
Rabe,
Eisenhower and Latin America
, 128.
51
Memorandum of Discussion at the Department of State, Sept. 30, 1960, in
FRUS, Cuba, vol. VI, 1959â1960, 1079. See also editorial note on p. 1082, quoting Merchant as saying that “Castro would not be so stupid as to make an overt attack” on Guantánamo. Meanwhile, Admiral Dennison, commander in chief of the Atlantic Fleet, remarked that Guantánamo would be “useless to Castro.”
52
Herter and Eisenhower quoted in Rabe,
Eisenhower and Latin America
, 172.
53
U.S. Policy Toward Cuba, Memorandum of Discussion at the 436th Meeting of the National Security Council, Washington, D.C., March 10, 1960, FRUS, Cuba, vol. VI, 1958â60, 834.
54
Fabian Escalante,
The Cuba Project: CIA Covert Operations, 1959â62
(New York: Ocean Press, 2004), 74.
55
Ibid., 86â93; Jesús Arboleya,
The Cuban Counterrevolution
(Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2000), 94â96.
56
Stevenson quoted in William N. Oatis, “Cuban's Guantánamo Attack Called Absurd by Stevenson,”
Washington Post
, Aug. 25, 1961; Dennison quoted in “Reminiscences of Admiral Robert Lee Dennison, U.S. Navy (Ret.),” U.S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md., Aug. 1975.
57
Memorandum from CIA chief of operations Richard Helms to director of Central Intelligence McCone, Jan. 19, 1962, National Security Archive, Washington, D.C.
58
Program review by the chief of operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), Jan. 18, 1962, FRUS, Cuba, vol. X, 1961â1963.
59
Memorandum for Brigadier General Edward G. Lansdale, USAF, assistant to the secretary of defense, from Brigadier General William H. Graig, DOD representative, Caribbean Survey Group, Feb. 2, 1962, Digital National Security Archive.
60
Memorandum from the chief of operations, Cuba Project, to Brigadier General William H. Craig, Feb. 19, 1962, Digital National Security Archive.
61
Memorandum for Secretary of State Robert McNamara from Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Lyman Lemnitzer, March 13, 1962, Digital National Security Archive.
62
Memorandum for U.S. National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy from Acting Director Central Intelligence Marshall S. Carter, “CIA Action in Response to National Security Action Memorandum No. 181,” Aug. 1962, Digital National Security Archive; Memorandum of Meetings of the Special Group, Augmented, to Discuss Mongoose, Aug. 16, 1962, FRUS, 1961â63, Cuba, Doc. 378; Memorandum of Meeting with President Kennedy, Aug. 23, 1962, FRUS, 1961â63, vol. XI, doc. 385.
63
Current Intelligence Memorandum, August 22, 1962, FRUS, Cuba, 1961â63, vol. XI, doc. 383.
64
See Laurence Chang and Peter Kornbluh, eds.,
The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962: A National Security Archive Documents Reader
, rev. ed. (New York: The New Press, 1999), introduction.
65
Telegram from Chief of Naval Operations (Anderson) to the Department of State, Aug. 24, 1962, FRUS, Cuba, 1961â63, vol. XI, doc. 389.
66
Memorandum from Director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research (Hils-man) to Acting Secretary of State Ball, Aug. 25, 1962, FRUS, Cuba, 1961â63, vol. XI, doc. 390.
67
Carter to McCone, Cable, Sept. 7, 1962 (Excerpt), Digital National Security Archive.
68
See, for example, Report from the Chief of Naval Operations to the Secretary of State, Sept. 7, 1962, Digital National Security Archive; Summary of Items of Significant Interest, Sept. 7, 1962, Digital National Security Archive; as well as subsequent intelligence reports in idem.
69
Kennedy quote in Off the Record Meeting on Cuba, Oct. 16, 1962, The Cuban Missile Crisis, Avalon Project, Yale University, doc. 21.
70
Minutes of the 505th Meeting of the National Security Council, Oct. 20, 1962, The Cuban Missile Crisis, Avalon Project, Yale University, doc. 34.