1
Herbert Corey, “Across the Equator with the American Navy,”
National Geographic
, 39, no. 6 (June 1921): 590.
8
The fullest account of this is Louis A. Pérez Jr.,
On Becoming Cuban: Identity, Nationality, and Culture
(New York: Ecco Press, 1999), chap. 2. See also Robert B. Hoernel, “Sugar and Social Change in Oriente, Cuba, 1898â1946,”
Journal of Latin American Studies
8, no. 2 (Nov. 1976): 220; Carmen Diana Deere, “Here Come the Yankees! The Rise and Decline of the United States Colonies in Cuba,”
Hispanic American Historical Review
78, no. 4 (Nov. 1998), 733, 738â39; as well as Louis Pérez, Jr., “Politics, Peasants, and People of Color: The 1912 Race War in Cuba Reconsidered,”
Hispanic American Historical Review
66, no. 3 (Aug. 1986): 509â39.
9
Hoernel, “Sugar and Social Change,” 221â22, 225â29; Deere, “Here Come the Yankees!” 735â38; Pérez,
On Becoming Cuban
, 221â24; Pérez, “Politics, Peasants, and People of Color,” 509â12.
10
Hoernel, “Sugar and Social Change,” 229â39.
11
Secretary Long cited in Bradley M. Reynolds, “Guantánamo Bay, Cuba: The History of an American Naval Base and Its Relationship to the Formulation of U.S. Foreign Policy and Military Strategy Toward the Caribbean,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1982, 155.
12
Henry Cabot Lodge, “Our Blundering Foreign Policy,”
Forum
(March 1895): 8. See also Richard Olney, “International Isolation of the United States,”
Atlantic Monthly
81, no. 487 (May 1898): 577â88.
13
Naval War Board to John D. Long, Aug. 1898, in Robert Seager II and Doris D. Maguire, eds.,
Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan
, vol. 2,
1890â1901
(Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 581â86.
14
Naval War Board to John D. Long, Aug. 15â20, 1898, in Seager and Maguire,
Letters and Papers
, 588.
15
Reynolds, “Guantánamo Bay,” 229.
17
New York Times
, “Revolt of Cuban Negroes Spreading,” May 21, 1912, 5.
18
Wood quoted in Alejandro de la Fuente, “Myths of Racial Democracy: Cuba 1900â1912,”
Latin American Research Review
34, no. 3 (1999): 53; Pérez, “Politics, Peasants, and People of Color,” 509â511.
19
De la Fuente, “Myths of Racial Democracy,” 58â64; Aline Helg, “Race and Black Mobilization in Colonial and Early Independent Cuba: A Comparative Perspective,”
Ethnohistory
44, no. 1 (Winter 1997): 62â64; and Louis A. Pérez,
Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902â1934
(Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009), 148â51.
20
U.S. ambassador A. M. Beaupré to the secretary of state, Feb. 27, 1912, in FRUS, 243.
21
U.S. secretary of state Knox to U.S. ambassador to Cuba Beaupré, May 23, 1912, in FRUS, 245â46.
22
U.S. ambassador Beaupré to the U.S. secretary of state, May 24, 1912, in FRUS, 247.
23
The president of Cuba to the president of the United States, May 26, 1912, in FRUS, 247â48.
24
Taft to Gómez, May 27, 1912, in FRUS, 248; Gómez to Taft, May 27, 1912, in FRUS, 249.
25
Knox to Beaupré, May 29, 1912, in FRUS, 250.
26
Ibid., June 1, 1912, in FRUS, 252.
27
New York Times
, “Warships to Cuba After Marines Land,” June 6, 1912, 5.
28
Cuban foreign minister Manuel Sanguily to U.S. secretary of state, June 8, 1912, in FRUS, 259; Beaupré to Knox, June 9, 1912, in FRUS, 260; Beaupré to Knox, June 11, 1912, in FRUS, 262; and Helg, “Race and Black Mobilization,” 63. For an eyewitness account of the U.S. Marines' expedition to Cuba, see John A. Gray (Maj., USMC), “Recollections of the 1912 Cuban Expedition,”
The Marine Corps Gazette
17, no. 1 (May, 1932): 45â48. On the analogy to postâU.S. Civil War, see Joel Williamson,
The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Reconstruction
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1984).
29
Beaupré to Knox, June 11, 1912, in FRUS, 262.
30
Michael R. Hall,
Sugar and Power in the Dominican Republic: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the Trujillos
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000), 39â43.
31
Jorge DomÃnguez,
Cuba: Order and Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 17â18.
32
See Dudley W. Knox, Capt., U.S. Navy (Ret.), “An Adventure in Diplomacy,”
U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings
52, no. 2 (Feb. 1926): 273â87; FRUS, 1917, 367â431.
33
See conversation between the U.S. ambassador to Cuba, William Gonzalez, and Secretary of State Robert Lansing, in FRUS, Cuba, 1917, 368â410; “Fleet to Protect Americans in Cuba,”
New York Times
, March 1, 1917, 12; and “Our Troops Guard 5 Points in Cuba,”
New York Times
, March 13, 1917, 4.
34
Pérez,
Cuba Under the Platt Amendment
, 57â79.
38
Quoted in W. H. Brands,
T. R.: The Last Romantic
(New York: Basic Books, 1998), 569.
39
Pérez,
Cuba Under the Platt Amendment
, 139â43; Louis A. Pérez, Jr.,
Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 215â20; Hugh Thomas,
Cuba, or the Pursuit of Freedom
(New York: Da Capo, 1998), 504â506.
40
Pérez,
Cuba Under the Platt Amendment
, 152â55, 227â29; Thomas,
Cuba
, 556â76.
41
Pérez,
Cuba Under the Platt Amendment
, 158â66; Pérez,
Cuba: Between Reform
, 241â44; Thomas,
Cuba
, 574â78.
42
K. C. McIntosh, “Guantánamo,”
The American Mercury
10, no. 37 (Jan. 1927): 106.
43
Evelyn Hu-DeHart, “Race Construction and Race Relations: Chinese and Blacks in 19th Century Cuba,” in Wang Ling-chi and Lang Wungu, eds.,
The Chinese Diaspora, Selected Essays
(Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1998), 78.
44
McIntosh, “Guantánamo,” 110.
47
See Marion E. Murphy,
The History of Guantánamo Bay, 1494â1964
(U.S. Navy, 1953), chap. 5. Base officials never took kindly to criticism, particularly from women. See James F. Lloyd, lieutenant commander, U.S. Navy, to Rear Admiral E. J. O'Donnell, March 6, 1961, Command History Files, Navy Library, on the mildly critical article by Betty Reef in the
Overseas Press Bulletin
, Feb. 25, 1961; also, B. S. Solomon, captain, U.S. Navy, to Lieutenant Commander B. D. Barner, U.S. Navy, February 25, 1965, Command History Files, Navy Library, on journalist Elizabeth Chambers's infiltration of the naval base and her subsequent story, which appeared in the
Norfolk Ledger
that month.
48
See Fred S. Harrod,
Manning the New Navy: The Development of a Modern Naval Enlisted Force, 1899â1940
(Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1979), introduction. The 1920s, the so-called Jazz Age, the age of flappers, was one of the most reactionary periods in U.S. history. The Red Scare, the epidemic of lynching and renewed commitment to segregation, immigration restrictions, and the Scopes trial are only a few of the era's hallmarks. See Lynn Dumenil,
The Modern
Temper: American Culture and Society in the 1920s
(New York: Hill and Wang, 1995); Joshua Zeitz,
Flapper: A Madcap Story of Sex, Style, Celebrity, and the Women Who Made America Modern
(New York: Broadway, 2007); and Nathan Miller,
New World Coming: The 1920s and the Making of Modern America
(New York: Da Capo, 2004).
49
“Guantánamo Blues: A Taste of the Tropical Fruits of Prohibition, by a Navy Wife,”
Liberty Magazine
, April 12, 1930, 19â20.
61
Gerardo Castellanos,
Paseos EfÃmeros: Desfile histórico, Guantánamo Bijagual, Mantua, Remates de Guane
(La Habana: Editorial “Hermes,” 1930).
62
In February 1930, Castellanos notes (page 180), Guantánamo City was once more opened to the Americans.
63
Castellanos,
Paseos EfÃmeros
, 183.
65
Maynard Cooke Horiuchi to Jonathan Hansen, Sept. 20, 2005; Maynard Cooke Horiuchi to Jonathan Hansen, Oct. 1, 2005; Maynard Cooke Horiuchi to Hansen, Oct. 5, 2005; and Maynard Cooke Horiuchi, “US Naval Station, Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, Spring 1934 to April 1936,” personal memoir of Maynard Cooke Horiuchi, in author's possession.
66
Horiuchi to Hansen, Oct. 1, 2005; Horiuchi to Hansen, Oct. 5, 2005.
67
Frank G. Carpenter, “American Mediterranean Must Be Guarded by Uncle Sam,”
Boston Daily Globe
, October 15, 1905, SM3.
68
At different times, Cooke tried to do favors for Ernest Brooks, an Englishman and one of the area's largest growers. See J. G. Atkins, lieutenant commander, U.S. Navy, and aide to the commander in chief, U.S. Fleet, to Charles M. Cooke, Oct. 16, 1934, in Charles Cooke Collection, Box 7, Folder Osment, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University; Charles M. Cooke to William T. Osment, December 27, 1934, in Cook Collection, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.
69
Horiuchi, “US Naval Station, Guantánamo Bay,” 2â3.
70
Charles Cooke to William Osment, Jan. 14, 1935; William Osment to Charles Cooke, Jan. 15, 1935; Charles Cooke to William Osment, Jan. 16, 1935, all in Charles Cooke Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University. See also Humberto
Monteaguado, chief engineer, SecretarÃa de Obras Públicas, Jefatura del Distrito de Oriente, to Charles Cooke, April 20, 1936, with accompanying report; report about water supply, Commandant, U.S. Naval Station, Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, August 20, 1935, to chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks; and report on projects for supplying water to U.S. Naval Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, commandant, to chief of Bureau of Yards and Docks, all in Cooke Papers, Box 24, Folder U.S. Naval Station, Guantánamo, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University.