28
Press release, November 13, 1946, GE Archives; Schaefer, “Production of Ice Crystals”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification.”
29
Schaefer Laboratory Notebook, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
30
Suits to V. H. Fraenckel, November 13, 1946, Schaefer Papers.
31
Press release, November 14, 1946, GE Archives.
32
New York Times
, November 15, 1946, 24;
Boston Globe
, November 15, 1946, 1.
34
General Electric Corporation,
56th Annual Report
, 27.
35
Fleming, “Fixing the Weather,” 177.
36
Goldstein to GE, November 18, 1946, copy in Schaefer Papers.
37
Goldston, “Legal Entanglements”; Langmuir, “Summary of Results.”
38
Havens, “History of Project Cirrus,” 13.
40
“Project Cirrus” (1952), 13.
41
“Law Asked to Bar Suits Against the Rainmakers,”
New York Times
, January 13, 1949, 25.
42
“Many Legal Entanglements.”
43
“Project Cirrus” (1950), 287.
44
Schaefer interview; Droessler, “Federal Government Activities,” 253.
45
Doubleday, “Air Force Activities”; Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 16â17.
46
News clippings, including
New York Times
, October 12, 1947, 24;
Albany Times-Union
, October 12, 1947, n.p.;
Christian Science Monitor
, October 14, 1947, 10;
Los Angeles Times
, October 14, 1947, 1, Schaefer Papers.
47
Larry Murray, “Hurricane Study Only Begun, Says Schaefer,” October 17, 1947, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
48
Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 183â185.
49
Enders to Suits, November 13, 1947, with clipping enclosed, “Dry Ice and a Crazy Hurricane,” Schaefer Papers.
50
Schaefer, “Preliminary Report.”
51
Langmuir, “Growth of Particles,” 185.
53
Vonnegut, “Nucleation of Ice,” 593â595.
55
Vonnegut Laboratory Notebook, November 1946, Vonnegut Papers.
57
Press release, October 21, 1947, GE Archives.
59
Havens, Juisto, and Vonnegut,
Early History
.
61
Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
62
Petterssen,
Weathering the Storm
, 293â294.
63
Langmuir, “Seven Day Periodicity”; Brier, “7-Day Periodicities.”
64
Suits to Langmuir, August 26, 1949, copy in Vonnegut Papers.
65
Press release, January 2, 1950, GE Archives.
66
Langmuir, “Abstract of Remarks, Oct. 1950,” GE Archives.
67
Hosler, “Weather Modification”; Steinberg,
Slide Mountain
, 106â134, 191â194.
68
Langmuir, note card, “TV Aug. 24, 8:33 am, Dave Garroway, Today,” after 1953, Langmuir Papers.
69
“Review of Savannah Hurricane.”
70
“Rain Making Ineffective,” 375; Reichelderfer, “Letter,” 38.
71
“Scientist Would Move Rain Tests to South Pacific,”
Albuquerque Tribune
, April 29, 1955, 50, clipping in Schaefer Papers.
72
Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23.
73
“Scientist Would Move Rain Tests,” 50.
74
Langmuir, “Production of Rain”; Langmuir, “Report on Evaluation,” 23; “Langmuir Predicts Hurricane Prevention,”
Washington Post
, August 25, 1955, 2.
75
Elliott, “Experience of the Private Sector”; “City Flip-Flop on Rainmaking,”
Daily News
, November 5, 1951, clipping in Schaefer Papers; Landsberg, “Memorandum for the Record.”
76
Science of Superstorms
(British Broadcasting Corporation).
77
Ibid
.,
cited in Richard Gray, “How We Made the Chernobyl Rain,”
Sunday Telegraph
, April 22, 2007, n.p.
78
Science of Superstorms
(British Broadcasting Corporation).
6. Weather Warriors
1
Owning the Weather
(Greene).
2
Stephan Farris, “Ice Free,”
New York Times
, July 27, 2008, MM 20.
3
Fuller,
Weather and War
; Fuller,
Thor
'
s Legions
.
4
Fleming, “Sverre Petterssen,” 75â83.
5
Polybius,
Universal History
, bk. 8; Rossi,
Birth of Modern Science
.
6
Hacker, “Military Patronage”; Mendelsohn, “Science, Scientists.”
7
McNeill,
Pursuit of Power
; Fleming, “Distorted Support.”
8
Gillispie,
Science and Polity
.
9
U.S. Army Medical Department, “Regulations,” 227.
10
Fleming, “Storms, Strikes, and Sur veillance”; see also Whitnah,
History of the United States Weather Bureau
, 22â42; and Hawes, “Signal Corps.”
11
Bates and Fuller,
America
'
s Weather Warriors
, 16â26; Fleming, “Distorted Support,” 51â53.
12
Fleming, “Fixing the Weather and Climate,” 176.
15
Simpson and Simpson, “Why Experiment?”; news clippings in Schaefer Papers.
16
“Weather Control Called âWeapon,'”
New York Times
, December 10, 1950, 68.
17
Suits, “Statement on Weather Control.”
18
V. H. Fraenckel to C. Guy Suits, telegram, 1947; W. H. Milton Jr. to C. Guy Suits, September 2, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
19
R. E. Evans to Vincent Schaefer, December 10, 1947, Schaefer Papers.
20
Vincent Schaefer to C. J. Brasefield, May 4, 1948; Vincent Schaefer to Michael J. Ference Jr., May 13, 1948, and reply May 14, 1948, Schaefer Papers.
21
Kobler, “Stormy Sage,” 70.
22
Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 13.
23
Petterssen,
Weathering the Storm
, 295.
24
Droessler,
Federal Government Activities
, 254.
25
Byers, “History of Weather Modification,” 25â27.
26
Petterssen,
Cloud and Weather Modification
.
27
Act of Congress, August 13, 1953 (67 Stat. 559), as amended July 9, 1956 (70 Stat. 509); U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service,
Weather Modification
.
28
Orville, “Weather Made to Order?” 26.
29
Nate Haseltine, “Cold War May Spawn Weather-Control Race,”
Washington Post and Times Herald
, December 23, 1957, A1.
30
Quoted in “Weather Weapon,” 54.
31
Fedorov, “Modification of Meteorological Processes,” 391.
32
Quoted in Arthur Krock, “An Inexpensive Start at Controlling the Weather,”
New York Times
, March 23, 1961, 32.
33
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Hurricane Research Division History”; Willoughby et al., “Project STORMFURY.”
34
Gentry, “Hurricane Modification,” 497.
35
U.S. Navy, “Technical Area Plan,” 1.
37
Science of Superstorms
(British Broadcasting Corporation).
38
Simpson interview; MacDonald, “Statement”; Fleming, “Distorted Support.”
39
Jack Anderson, “Air Force Turns Rainmaker in Laos,”
Washington Post
, March 18, 1971), F7; Seymour M. Hersh, “Rainmaking Is Used as a Weapon by U.S.,”
New York Times
, July 3, 1972, 1.
40
Cobb et al.,
Project Popeye
.
41
Science of Superstorms
(British Broadcasting Corporation).
42
Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
43
Fuller,
Air Weather Service Support
, 30â32.
45
Shapley, “Weather Warfare,” 1059â1061; Westmoreland,
Soldier Reports
, 342.
46
Appleman et al.,
Fourth Annual Survey Report
.
47
Chary,
History of Air Weather Service Weather Modification
, abstract.
48
National Academy of Sciences,
Weather and Climate Modification
, 24.
49
Fleming, “Pathological History,” 13.
50
“Dienbienphu Push Renewed by Reds,”
New York Times
, April 23, 1954, 2.
51
Contributions to the History of Dien Bien Phu
, 201.
52
Doel and Harper, “Prometheus Unleashed.”
53
Science of Superstorms
(British Broadcasting Corporation).
54
Handler to Pell, July 25, 1972, in U.S. Senate,
Prohibiting Military Weather Modification
, 153.
55
Quoted in U.S. House of Representatives,
Prohibition of Weather Modification
, 5; Munk, Oreskes, and Muller, “Gordon James Fraser MacDonald.”
56
“Hearing on Senate Resolution 281”;
Congressional Record
, July 11, 1973, 233303â5.
57
Seymour M. Hersh, “U.S. Admits Rain-Making from '67 to '72 in Indochina,”
New York Times
, May 19, 1974, 1; U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
.
58
Gromyko to United Nations secretary-general, August 7, 1974, in U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
, 11â12.
59
U.S. House of Representatives,
Weather Modification as a Weapon
, 510â513; Juda, “Negotiating a Treaty,” 28.
60
United Nations, “Convention on the Prohibition.”
61
United Nations,
Multilateral Treaties Deposited
, 667.
62
Goldblat, “Environmental Convention,” 57.
63
Owning the Weather
(Greene).
64
Chamorro and Hammond,
Addressing Environmental Modification
.
65
United Nations,
Multilateral Treaties Deposited
, 667.
66
Conway, “World According to GARP,” 131â147.
67
Marshall, “Greening of the National Labs,” 25.
68
Stapler, “New Face of the Pacific,” n.p.
69
Cohen, “DoD News Briefing,” n.p.
7. Fears, Fantasies, and Possibilities of Control
1
Tuan,
Landscapes of Fear
, 6.
2
von Neumann, “Can We Survive Technology?”
3
Harper,
Weather by the Numbers
; see also Phillips, “General Circulation”; Smagorinsky, “Beginnings of Numerical”; Thompson, “History of Numerical”; and Nebeker,
Calculating the Weather
.
4
Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal,” 8.
5
von Neumann to Zworykin, October 24, 1945, in Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal.”
6
Athelstan F. Spilhaus, “Comments on Weather Proposal,” November 6, 1945, in Zworykin, “Outline of Weather Proposal.”
7
Waldemar Kaempffert, “Julian Huxley Pictures the More Spectacular Possibilities That Lie in Atomic Power,”
New York Times
, December 9, 1945, 77; “Blasting Polar Ice,”
New York Times
, February 2, 1946, 11.
8
“Sarnoff Predicts Weather Control and Delivery of the Mail by Radio,”
New York Times
, October 1, 1946, 1.
9
“Talk of the Town,”
New Yorker
, October 12, 1946, 23.
10
. MacCracken, “On the Possible Use of Geoengineering.”
11
“Storm Prevention Seen by Scientist,”
New York Times
, January 31, 1947, 16.
12
“Weather to Order,”
New York Times
, February 1, 1947, 14.
13
Wexler, “Trip ReportâPrinceton, N.J., Oct. 14â15, 1946,” box 2, Wexler Papers.
14
Harald Sverdrup to Francis Reichelderfer, June 2, 1946, box 2, Wexler Papers.
15
“$28,000,000 Urged to Support M.I.T.,”
New York Times
, June 15, 1947, 46.
16
Mann, “War Against Hail,” 8.
17
Hoffman, “Controlling Hurricanes”; see also Hoffman, “Controlling the Global Weather”; and Hoffman, Leidner, and Henderson, “Controlling the Global Weather.”
18
Shachtman, “NASA Funds Sci-Fi Technology.”