The Pleasure Instinct: Why We Crave Adventure, Chocolate, Pheromones, and Music (31 page)

BOOK: The Pleasure Instinct: Why We Crave Adventure, Chocolate, Pheromones, and Music
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60
For instance, children who have delayed
Rine, RM, Cornwall, G, Gan, K, LoCascio, C, O’Hare, T, Robinson, E, Rice, M (2000) Evidence of progressive delay of motor development in children with sensorineural hearing loss and concurrent vestibular dysfunction.
Perceptual and Motor Skills,
90(3 Pt 2): 1101-1112.
60
The stress hormones
See Wallenstein, GV (2003)
Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood
. Commonwealth Press, Boston.
61
Moreover, animals that are given
For review see Wallenstein, GV (2003)
Mind, Stress, and Emotions: The New Science of Mood
. Commonwealth Press, Boston; Gilmer,WS, McKinney,WT (2003) Early experience and depressive disorders: human and non-human primate studies.
Journal of Affective Disorders,
75(2): 97-113.
61
For instance, gentle daily massage
For a review see Fleming, AS, O’Day, DH, Kraemer, GW (1999) Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
23(5): 673-685; Carvell, GE, Simons, DJ (1996) Abnormal tactile experience early in life disrupts active touch.
Journal of Neuroscience,
16(8): 2750-2757.
61
Although there have not been many controlled
See articles in Barnard, KE, Brazelton, TB (1990)
Touch: The Foundation of Experience
. International University Press, Madison, CT.
62
The twin who received the motion
For a comprehensive review of early studies see Ottenbacher, KJ, Petersen, P (1984) The efficacy of vestibular stimulation as a form of specific sensory enrichment. Quantitative review of the literature.
Clinical Pediatrics (Phila.),
23(8): 428-433.
5 In Praise of Odors
65
This is true for humans, primates
Tanabe, T, Iino, M, Takagi, SF (1975) Discrimination of odors in olfactory bulb, pyriform-amygdaloid areas, and orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey.
Journal of Neurophysiology,
38: 1284-1296; Tanabe,T,Yarita, H, Iino, M, Ooshima, Y, Takagi, SF (1975) An olfactory projection area in orbitofrontal cortex of the monkey.
Journal of Neurophysiology,
38: 1269-1283; Pritchard,TC, Hamilton, RB, Morse, JR, Norgren, R (1986) Projections of thalamic gustatory and lingual areas in the monkey, Macaca fascicularis.
Journal of Comparative Neurology,
244: 213-228; Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans,AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex.
Nature,
60: 339-340.
65
Experiments have shown that when humans
Zatorre, RJ, Jones-Gotman, M, Evans, AC, Meyers, E (1992) Functional localization and lateralization of human olfactory cortex.
Nature,
60: 339-340; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) A role for the right anterior temporal lobe in taste quality recognition.
Journal of Neuroscience,
17: 5136-5142; Small, DM, Jones-Gotman, M, Zatorre, RJ, Petrides, M, Evans, AC (1997) Flavor processing: more than the sum of its parts.
Neuroreport,
8: 3913-3917.
66
In her book
A Natural History Ackerman, D (1991)
A Natural History of the Senses
. Vintage Books, New York.
66
One theory suggests that during the Devonian
Watson, L (2000)
Jacobson’s Organ and the Remarkable Nature of Smell
. W. W. Norton & Company, New York.
69
By the twenty-eighth week, Kai’s placenta
Psychologist Julie Mennella first tested this idea by taking amniotic fluid samples from women who were undergoing a routine amniocentesis and had ingested either garlic or placebo capsules approximately forty-five minutes before the procedure.The odor of the amniotic fluid from women who consumed garlic was judged, by independent evaluators, as smelling stronger and more like garlic than the fluid from those who consumed only saline (Mennella, JA, Johnson,A, Beuchamp, GK [1995] Garlic ingestion by pregnant women alters the odor of amniotic fluid.
Chemical Senses,
20: 207).
69
In fact, scientists have speculated that odor
Eliot, L (2000)
What’s Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life
. Bantam Books, New York.
70
Injections of simple saline solution
Smotherman, WP, Robinson, SR (1988) Behavior of rat fetuses following chemical or tactile stimulation.
Behavioral Neuroscience,
102: 24-34.
70
After birth, the rats that were exposed
Pedersen, PE, Blass, EM (1982) Prenatal and postnatal determinants of the first sucking episode in albino rats.
Development Psychobiology,
15: 349-355.
70
If their amniotic fluid is scented
Smotherman,WP (1982) Odor aversion learning by the rat fetus.
Physiology and Behavior,
29: 769-771.
70
Experiments performed in culturally diverse
Varendi, H, et al. (1996) Attractiveness of amniotic fluid odor: evidence of prenatal olfactory learning?
Acta Paediatrica,
85: 1223-1227.
71
Newborns also cry less and show
Varendi, H, et al. (1998) Soothing effect of amniotic fluid smell in newborn infants.
Early Human Development,
51: 47-55.
71
Within hours after birth, a breast-fed
Schaal, B (1988) Olfaction in infants and children: development and functional perspectives.
Chemical Senses,
13: 145.
71
Infants born to anise-consuming
Schaal, B, Marlier, L, Soussigan, R (2000) Human fetuses learn odours from their pregnant mother’s diet.
Chemical Senses,
25: 729-737.
72
Researchers have found that newborns
Mennella, JA, Beauchamp, GK (1991) Olfactory preferences in children and adults. In
The Human Sense of Smell,
Lang, D, Dory, RL, Breipohl, W (eds.). Springer-Verlag, NY.
72
Some of the most popular smells include strawberry
Schmidt, HJ, Beauchamp, GK (1988) Adult-like preferences and aversions in three-year-old children.
Child Development,
59: 1138.
74
Within four months
Russell, MJ, et al. (1980) Olfactory influences on the human menstrual cycle.
Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior,
13: 737.
74
The answer came
Empson, J (1977) Periodicity in body temperature in man.
Experientia,
33: 342.
77
Each person tested was brought
Wedekind, C, Furi, S (1997) Body odour preferences in men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simply heterozygosity?
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences,
22: 1471-1479.
77
In 2001,Wedekind’s group
Milinski, M, Wedekind, C (2001) Evidence for MHC-CORRELATED perfume preferences in humans.
Behavioral Ecology,
12: 140-149.
 
6 For the Love of Chocolate
80
Spouted, teapot-shaped vessels
Hurst,WJ,Tarka, SM Jr., Powis,TG,Valdez, F Jr., Hester,TR (2002) Cacao usage by the earliest Maya civilization.
Nature,
418: 289-290.
82
Placing a small amount of liquid
Barr, RG et al. (1994) Effects of intra-oral sucrose on crying, mouthing, and hand-mouth contact in newborn and six-week-old infants.
Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology,
36: 608.
82
The key to unraveling this mystery
di Tomaso, E, Beltramo, M, Piomelli, D (1996) Brain cannibinoids in chocolate.
Nature,
382: 677-678.
84
In a very real sense, the opioid
Molecular evidence has shown that the opioid system is highly conserved across anatomically diverse species and hence very old within the framework of hominid evolution. For instance, the gene sequence that codes the development of mu opioid receptors is essentially the same in humans, bovine chickens, bullfrogs, striped bass, thresher sharks, and the Pacific hagfish (Li, X, Keith, DE, Evans, CJ [1996] Mu opioid receptorlike sequences are present throughout vertebrate evolution.
Journal of Molecular Evolution,
43: 179-184.)
84
Study after study has shown that in humans
For examples, see Facchinetti, F et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relationships to affective state.
Physiology and Behavior,
36: 937-940; Melchior, JC, et al. (1991) Immunoreactive beta-endorphin increases after an aspartame chocolate drink in healthy subjects.
Physiology and Behavior,
50: 941-944.
85
At least two independent studies have found that obese
Facchinetti, F, et al. (1986) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity and relationships to affective state.
Physiology and Behavior,
36: 937-940; Scavo, D, et al. (1990) Hyperendorphinemia in obesity is not related to affective state.
Physiology and Behavior,
48: 681-683.
85
Hence, attachment behaviors depend on opioid
Moles, A, Kieffer, BL, D’Amato, FR (2004) Deficit in attachment behavior in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor gene.
Science,
304: 1983-1986.
87
These include tongue protrusions to reject
Steiner, JE (1973) The gustofacial response: Observation on normal and anencephalic newborn infants. In
Fourth Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception
. JF Bosma (ed.), U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Bethesda, MD.
88
Studies performed during this time show that fetuses
Mistretta, CM, Bradley, RM (1975) Taste and swallowing in utero: a discussion of fetal sensory function.
British Medical Bulletin,
31: 80-84.
88
Likewise, rats born to mothers who consume
The implications of this learning process for understanding and treating addiction will be discussed in chapter 9.
89
But this has changed with the discovery that simply putting a fatty
Mattes, RD (2001) The taste of fat elevates postprandial triacylglycerol.
Physiology and Behavior,
74: 343-348.
90
These findings are probably no surprise
Drewnowski, A, Greenwood, MR (1983) Cream and sugar: human preferences for high-fat foods.
Physiology and Behavior,
30: 629-633.
90
Michael Crawford of the Institute
Cunnane, SC, Crawford, MA (2003) Survival of the fattest: fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology,
136(1): 17-26.
92
They suggest the most dramatic increase
Ibid.
92
For instance, both ALA and LA
For a review, see Bourre, JM (2004) Roles of unsaturated fatty acids (especially omega-3 fatty acids) in the brain at various ages and during aging.
Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging,
8(3): 163-174.
92
Another study showed that ALA
Ibid.
93
It is known that humans and other animals
See, for example, Imaizumi, M, Takeda, M, Sawano, S, Fushiki, T (2001) Opioidergic contribution to conditioned place preference induced by corn oil in mice.
Behavioral Brain Research,
121(1-2): 129-136.
93
For instance, if LA and sucrose
Gilbertson, TA (1999) The taste of fat. In
Pennington Center Nutrition Series: Nutrition, Genetics, and Obesity
. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 192-207.
93
In a series of behavioral experiments
Herzog, P, McCormack, DN,Webster, KL, Pittman, DW (2003) Linoleic acid alters licking responses to sweet, sour, and salt tastants in rats. Abstract, 25th Annual Meeting of the Association for Chemoreception Sciences.
93
Likewise, when Pittman’s rats
Ibid.
7 The Evolution of the Lullaby
97
Indeed, given the omnipresence of music
Hauser, MD, McDermott, J (2003) The evolution of the music faculty: a comparative perspective.
Nature Neuroscience,
6(7): 663-668;Trehub, SE (2003) The developmental origins of music.
Nature Neuroscience,
6(7): 669-673; Miller, GF (2000) Evolution of human music through sexual selection. In Wallin, NL, Merker, B, Brown, S (eds.) (2001),
The Origins of Music
. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 329-360.
98
The first group views music as an interesting
Pinker, S (1994)
The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language
. William Morrow & Company, New York; Pinker, S (1997)
How the Mind Works
.W. W. Norton & Company, New York.
98
This view, however, has its problems
Williams, GC (1966)
Adaptation and Natural Selection
. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
98
Finally, a third school of thought
Miller, GF (2000)
The Mating Mind
. Doubleday, New York; Levitan, DJ (2006)
This Is Your Brain on Music
. Dutton, New York ; Mithen, S (2006)
The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind, and Body
. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
99
Indeed, adaptations driven by sexual
Zahavi, A (1997)
The Handicap Principle
. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
100
This has led some theorists to focus on the similarities
Patel, AD (1998) Syntactic processing in language and music: Different cognitive operations, similar neural resources?
Music Perception,
16: 27-42;Trehub, SE (2003) The developmental origins of musicality.
Nature Neuroscience,
6: 669-673.
100
They viewed music as being built from a hierarchy
Lerdahl, F, Jackendoff, R (1983)
A Generative Theory of Tonal Music
. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
102
They also discriminate two melodies
Schellenberg, EG, Trehub, SE (1996) Natural musical intervals: evidence from infant listeners.
Psychological Science,
7: 272-277.
BOOK: The Pleasure Instinct: Why We Crave Adventure, Chocolate, Pheromones, and Music
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