The Great Influenza (74 page)

'pint of bright red blood':
Jordan,
Epidemic Influenza,
260.

'died from loss of blood':
Ireland,
Pathology of Acute Respiratory Diseases,
13.

'hemorrhages' interior of the eye':
Thomson and Thomson,
Influenza,
v. 9, 753.

'subconjunctional hemorrhage':
Ireland,
Pathology of Acute Respiratory Diseases,
13.

'uterine mucosa':
Ibid., 76.

chief diagnostician' diagnosed:
Jordan,
Epidemic Influenza,
265.

47 percent of all deaths:
Thomson and Thomson,
Influenza,
v. 9, 165.

average life expectancy:
Jeffrey K. Taubenberger, 'Seeking the 1918 Spanish Influenza Virus,'
American Society of Microbiology News
65, no. 3 (July 1999).

South African cities:
J. M. Katzenellenbogen, 'The 1918 Influenza Epidemic in Mamre,'
South African Medical Journal
(Oct. 1988), 362/64.

In Chicago the deaths:
Fred R. Van Hartesveldt,
The 1918/1919 Pandemic of Influenza: The Urban Impact in the Western World
(1992), 121.

A Swiss physician:
E. Bircher, 'Influenza Epidemic,'
Correspondenz-Blatt fur Schweizer Aerzte, Basel
(1918), 1338, quoted in
JAMA
71, no. 23 (Dec. 7, 1918), 1946.

'doubly dead in that':
Sherwin Nuland,
How We Die
(1993), 202.

from 23 percent to 71 percent:
Jordan,
Epidemic Influenza,
273.

26 percent lost the child:
John Harris, 'Influenza Occurring in Pregnant Women: A Statistical Study of 130 Cases,'
JAMA
(April 5, 1919), 978.

'interesting pathological experience':
Wolbach to Welch, Oct. 22, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.

'convolutions of the brain':
Douglas Symmers, M.D. 'Pathologic Similarity Between Pneumonia of Bubonic Plague and of Pandemic Influenza,'
JAMA
(Nov. 2, 1918), 1482.

'relaxed and flabby':
Ireland,
Pathology of Acute Respiratory Diseases,
79.

damage to the kidneys:
Ireland,
Communicable Diseases,
160.

'necrotic areas, frank hemorrage':
Ireland,
Pathology of Acute Respiratory Diseases,
392.

'comparable findings' death from toxic gas':
Ireland,
Communicable Diseases,
149.

'inhalation of poison gas':
Edwin D. Kilbourne, M.D.,
Influenza
(1987), 202.

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE

'died within twelve hours':
Transcript of influenza commission appointed by governor of New York, meeting at New York Academy of Medicine, Oct. 30, 1918, SLY.

'One robust person':
E. Bircher, 'Influenza Epidemic,'
JAMA
(Dec. 7, 1918), 1338.

the conductor collapsed, dead:
Collier,
Plague of the Spanish Lady,
38.

'a new disease':
Jordan,
Epidemic Influenza,
36.

'Physical signs were confusing':
Ireland,
Communicable Diseases,
160.

'old classification' was inappropriate':
Ireland,
Pathology of Acute Respiratory Diseases,
10.

'little evidence of bacterial action':
F. M. Burnet and Ellen Clark,
Influenza: A Survey of the Last Fifty Years,
(1942), 92.

'lesion of characterization':
Ireland,
Communicable Diseases,
150.

inhibits the release of interferon:
Fields,
Fields' Virology,
196.

weakened immune responses:
Thomson and Thomson,
Influenza,
v. 9, 604.

'acute inflammatory injection':
Ibid., 92.

'not previously described':
P. K. S. Chan et al., 'Pathology of Fatal Human Infection Associated with Avian Influenza A H5N1 Virus,'
Journal of Medical Virology
(March 2001), 242/46.

had seen the same thing:
Jordan,
Epidemic Influenza,
266/68, passim.

mortality rate for ARDS:
Lorraine Ware and Michael Matthay, 'The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome,'
New England Journal of Medicine
(May 4, 2000), 1338.

Recent research also suggests:
J. A. McCullers and K. C. Bartmess, 'Role of Neuraminidase in Lethal Synergism Between Influenza Virus and Streptococcus Pneumoniae,'
Journal of Infectious Diseases
(March 15, 2003), 1000/1009.

almost half the autopsies:
Ireland,
Communicable Diseases,
151.

the same conclusion:
Milton Charles Winternitz,
The Pathology of Influenza,
(1920).

deaths came from complications:
Frederick G. Hayden and Peter Palese, 'Influenza Virus' in Richman et al.,
Clinical Virology
(1997), 926.

still roughly 7 percent:
Murphy and Werbster, 'Orthomyxoviruses,' in Fields,
Fields' Virology,
1407.

35 percent of pnemococcal infections:
'Pneumococcal Resistance,' Clinical Updates IV, issue 2, January 1998, National Foundation for Infectious Diseases,
www.nfid.org/publications/clinicalupdates/id/pneumococcal.html
.

Part VII: The Race

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO

Three Hopkins medical students:
Dorothy Ann Pettit, 'A Cruel Wind: America Experiences the Pandemic Influenza, 1918/1920' (1976), 134.

'could not have dreamed':
Comments at USPHS conference on influenza, Jan. 10, 1929, file 11, box 116, WP.

went to bed immediately:
Welch to Walcott, Oct. 16, 1918, Frederic Collin Walcott papers, SLY.

'the Flip-flap railroad':
Simon Flexner and James Thomas Flexner,
William Henry Welch and the Heroic Age of American Medicine
(1941), 251.

'temperature has been normal':
Welch to Walcott, Oct. 16, 1918, Walcott papers.

'astonishing numbers':
Quoted in David Thomson and Robert Thomson,
Annals of the Pickett-Thomson Research Laboratory,
v. 9,
Influenza
(1934), 265.

the cause of influenza:
William Bulloch,
The History of Bacteriology
(1938), 407/8.

'Surely there is a time':
Quoted in Wade Oliver,
The Man Who Lived for Tomorrow: A Biography of William Hallock Park, M.D.,
(1941), 218.

'Everyone believed it':
Saul Benison,
Tom Rivers: Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science, An Oral History Memoi
r (1967), 237/40, 298.

'No influenza bacilli':
A. Montefusco,
Riforma Medica
34, no. 28 (July 13, 1918), quoted in
JAMA
71, no. 10, 934.

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE

'a new bronchopneumonia':
Pettit, 'Cruel Wind,' 98.

Copeland was sworn in:
Ibid., 9: 555.

his loyalty to Tammany:
Ernest Eaton, 'A Tribute to Royal Copeland,'
Journal of the Institute of Homeopathy
9: 554.

perform it within thirty minutes:
Charles Krumwiede Jr. and Eugenia Valentine, 'Determination of the Type of Pneumococcus in the Sputum of Lobar Pneumonia, A Rapid Simple Method,'
JAMA
(Feb. 23, 1918), 513/14; Oliver,
Man Who Lived for Tomorrow,
381.

'so-called Spanish influenza':
'New York City letter,'
JAMA
71, no. 12 (Sept. 21, 1918): 986; see also John Duffy,
A History of Public Health in New York City 1866/1966
(1974), 280/90, passim.

'prepared to compel':
'New York City letter,'
JAMA
71, no. 13 (Sept. 28, 1918), 1076/77.

'We mourn for him':
Letter of Jan. 5, 1890, quoted in Oliver,
Man Who Lived for Tomorrow,
26.

despite their animosity:
Benison,
Tom Rivers,
183.

'secret of course':
Oliver,
Man Who Lived for Tomorrow,
149.

'wanted to go places':
Anna Williams, diary, undated, chap. 26, pp. 1, 17, carton 1, Anna Wessel Williams papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College.

'no one particular friend':
'Marriage' folder, undated, Williams papers.

'degrees to everything, including friendship':
'Religion' folder, March 24, 1907, Williams papers.

'if we were sure, oh!':
'Religion' folder, Aug. 20, 1915, Williams papers.

'discontent rather than happiness':
'Affections, longing, desires, friends' folder, Feb. 23, 1908, Williams papers.

'I have had thrills':
'Marriage' folder, undated, Williams papers.

no advice to give:
Diary, Sept. 17, 1918, Williams papers.

'Death occurring so quickly':
Diary, undated, chap. 22, p. 23, Williams papers.

quadrupled the number of horses:
Oliver,
Man Who Lived for Tomorrow,
378.

'Will your lab undertake':
Pearce wire to Park, Sept. 18, 1918, influenza files, NAS.

'Will undertake work':
Park wire to Pearce, Sept. 19, 1918, influenza files, NAS.

dismissed most of it:
William Park et al., 'Introduction' (entire issue devoted to his laboratory's findings, divided into several articles),
Journal of Immunology
6, no. 2 (Jan. 1921).

in fifteen minutes could fill three thousand tubes: Annual Report of the Department of Health,
New York City, 1918, 86.

arbitrarily stopped counting:
Mortality figures for the epidemic were no longer tabulated after March 31, 1919. By then the disease had died out in every major city in the country except New York City.

Nurses were literally being kidnapped:
Permillia Doty, 'A Retrospect on the Influenza Epidemic,'
Public Health Nurse
(1919), 953.

'we are justified in':
William Park and Anna Williams,
Pathogenic Microroganisms
(1939), 281.

'our methods' did not take into account':
Park et al., 'Introduction,' 4.

'We had plenty of material':
Diary, undated, chap. 22, p. 23, Williams papers.

220,488 test tubes: Annual Report of the Department of Health,
New York City, 1918, 88.

'only results so far':
Park to Pearce, Sept. 23, 1918, NAS.

she would find it:
Edwin O. Jordan,
Epidemic Influenza
(1927), 391.

'the most delicate test':
Park et al., 'Introduction,' 4.

'the starting point of the disease':
Park to Pearce, Sept. 26, 1918, NAS.

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR

'[h]is heart lies in research':
Smith to Flexner, April 5, 1908, Lewis papers, RUA.

'one of the best':
Flexner to Eugene Opie, Feb. 13, 1919, Flexner papers, APS.

the smartest man:
Interview with Dr. Robert Shope, Jan. 31, 2002; interview with Dr. David Lewis Aronson, May 16, 2002.

'special service in connection':
Lewis to Flexner, June 19, 1917, Flexner papers.

'no onerous routine duties':
Lewis to Flexner, Oct. 24, 1917, Flexner papers.

'capacity to inhibit growth':
See assorted correspondence between Flexner and Lewis, esp. Lewis to Flexner, Nov. 13, 1916, Flexner papers.

only one had died:
W. R. Redden and L. W. McQuire, 'The Use of Convalescent Human Serum in Influenza Pneumonia'
JAMA
(Oct. 19, 1918), 1311.

suspected a virus:
On Dec. 9, 1918, Lewis received permission from the navy to publish 'The Partially Specific Inhibition Action of Certain Aniline Dyes for the Pneumococcus,' entry 62, RG 125, NA; see also polio clipping in epidemic scrapbook, College of Physicians Library, Philadelphia, which mistakenly referred to a vaccine used by the city as being produced according to methods used in New York for polio. The specificity of this error almost certainly came from a misunderstanding of Lewis's work.

'badly decomposed' bodies:
Transcript of New York influenza commission, meeting, Nov. 22, 1918, Winslow papers, SLY.

'armed the medical profession': Philadelphia Inquirer,
Sept. 22, 1918.

only three people developed pneumonia:
Transcripts of New York influenza commission, first session, Oct. 30, 1918; second session, Nov. 22, 1918; and fourth session, Feb. 14, 1919, Winslow papers.

failed to cure:
Thomson and Thomson,
Influenza,
v. 10, (1934), 822.

'Technically, I am not well-trained':
James Thomas Flexner,
An American Saga: The Story of Helen Thomas and Simon Flexner
(1984), 421.

'cleanliness of the glassware':
Steven Rosenberg was the student. See Rosenberg and John Barry,
The Transformed Cell: Unlocking the Secrets of Cancer
(1992).

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE

'Every case showed':
Wolbach to Welch, Oct. 22, 1918, entry 29, RG 112, NA.

'causative agent':
George Soper, M.D., 'The Influenza-Pneumonia Pandemic in the American Army Camps, September and October 1918,'
Science
(Nov. 8, 1918), 455.