Ottoman Brothers: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Early Twentieth-Century Palestine (85 page)

^35.
Filas
īn
, August 2, 1911.

^36.
Filas
īn
, July 29, 1911.

^37.
“Holiday of the Homeland,” by Salim Abu al-Aqbal al-Ya'qubi,
Filas
īn
, July 26, 1911.

^38.
The reference is to the biblical tale of Joseph, the favored of Jacob's twelve sons, sold into slavery by his jealous brothers who then lied to their father saying their brother had been killed by a wolf. The story is also recounted in the Qur'an, and hence is well known by Muslims, Christians, and Jews.

^39.
This is a reference to the 1909 coup, instigated by the former sultan, conservative religious scholars, and according to some critics, the conservative Arab notables as well.
Filas
īn
, July 22, 1911. Shukri al-'Asali, the target of al-‘Issa's wrath, was strongly affiliated with the opposition Entente Liberale political party.

^40.
See some of their demands in “We Want to Live,”
Al-Mufīd
, December 17, 1912, quoted in CZA A19/3. However the two organizations took a different approach to the question of whether or not foreign power aid should be requested.

^41.
Tauber, “Four Syrian Manifestos.”

^42.
Al-Karmil
, August 24, 1912, and August 28, 1912.

^43.
Al-Karmil
, August 28, 1912; September 14, 1912; October 5, 1912; December 11, 1912.

^44.
Al Karmil
, August 24, 1912; September 25, 1912; October 13, 1912; November 6, 1912. Nassar called Kurd ‘Ali a
“mujahid
(holy warrior) in the cause of liberty and reform,”
Al-Karmil
, September 21, 1912; the head of the Arab Literary Club was termed a “zealous patriot”, November 16, 1912.

^45.
In fact, several scholars have shown that Arab nationalism as a separatist, anti-Ottoman ideology was quite marginal before World War I. See Dawn,
From Ottomanism to Arabism
; Haddad, “Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire”; Blake, “Training Arab-Ottoman Bureaucrats”; and Kayali,
Arabs and Young Turks.
Only two secret societies (al-Fatat and al-'Ahd) were established that could be considered as properly nationalist in that they advocated Arab self-determination and separation from the empire, but their reach was quite limited. According to Dawn's research, no more than 126 men were known to be public advocates of Arab nationalism or members of Arab nationalist societies before 1914, 80 percent of whom were from Damascus.

^46.
“Appeal,” by Sa'id Abu Khadra', Jerusalem 1912, Arab Studies Society. On the general election see Kayali, “Elections and the Electoral Process,” R. Khalidi, “The 1912 Election Campaign,” and Yazbak, “Elections in Palestine.”

^47.
“Appeal,” 3–4.

^48.
Quoted in Cleveland,
Islam Against the West
, 25.

^49.
Kawtharani, ed.,
Watha'iq al-mu'atamar al-'Arabi al-awal 1913.
The congress also concerned itself with the status of emigration from and immigration to Syria.

^50.
Al-mu'atamar al-'Arabi al-awal
(1913 booklet), republished in ibid., 10.

^51.
Ibid., 117.

^52.
Decentralization Party (Hizb al-lamarkaziyya),
Bayan lil umma al-‘Arabiyya min hizb al-lamarkaziyya
, 5.

^53.
Tauber has shown that several leaders within the Decentralization Party were engaged in talks with both British and French officials, but there is no evidence that this turn to foreign powers had broader support. Tauber, “Ha-elmerkaziut.”

^54.
Decentralization Party,
Bayan lil umma al-'Arabiyya
, 19–20.

^55.
Al-Karmil
, September 28, 1912; October 2, 1912; October 5, 1912; October 9, 1912; October 17, 1912; October 20, 1912; October 30, 1912; November 6, 1912.

^56.
Edib,
House with Wisteria
; and Ginio, “Mobilizing the Ottoman Nation During the Balkan Wars.”

^57.
Kayali,
Arabs and Young Turks.

^58.
About eleven hundred Beirutis were exiled to Anatolia and Jerusalem under Cemal Pasha. Cleveland,
Islam Against the West
, 33. Around ten thousand “enemy aliens” resident in Palestine were expelled to Alexandria, and several hundred Ottoman Jews and Christians from Jaffa-Tel Aviv and Jerusalem were exiled to Damascus and Anatolia. Several thousand Jews did Ottomanize in the months after the outbreak of the war. Elmaliach,
Erei Israel ve-Suriya be-milbemet Ha-‘Olam ha-rishona.

^59.
Quoted in Tamari, “Great War and the Erasure of Palestine's Ottoman Past,” 116. For a study of Jerusalem during the war, see Jacobson, “From Empire to Empire.”

^60.
April 28, 1915; quoted in Tamari, “Great War and the Erasure of Palestine's Ottoman Past,” 123.

^61.
Their “secret plots” included replacing the khedivate in Egypt with a caliphate under British protection; turning the eastern coast of the Mediterranean over to the French; and declaring Muslim independence in interior Syria. Le Commandement de la IVme Armee,
La verite sur la question syrienne.

Conclusion

^1.
Blyth,
When We Lived in Jerusalem
, 88.

^2.
Shafir and Peled,
Israeli Citizenship.

^3.
See for example the list in Al-Bustani,
‘Ibra wa-dhikra.

^4.
Quoted in Abbott,
Turkey in Transition
, 102.

^5.
Quoted in Isin and Wood, eds.,
Citizenship and Identity
, 8. For the communitarian critique of liberal citizenship see Faulks,
Citizenship.

^6.
Interview with the
Daily Telegraph
, October 31, 1908. Quoted in Ilicak, “Unknown ‘Freedom' Tales of Ottoman Greeks,” 28.

^7.
Spinner,
Boundaries of Citizenship.

^8.
Shafir and Peled,
Being Israeli
, 6.

^9.
Kaligian, “Armenian Revolutionary Federation,” 73.

^10.
Kechriotis, “Greeks of Izmir at the End of the Empire.”

^11.
Kymlicka,
Multicultural Citizenship.

^12.
Faulks,
Citizenship
, 89.

^13.
Tamari, “Great War and the Erasure of Palestine's Ottoman Past,” 107.

^14.
This understanding was eloquently expressed by Reinhold Niebuhr as the presence of “dominion”
and
“community” in empires as well as nations. Niebuhr,
Structure of Nations and Empires.

^15.
Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.

Archival Collections

Arab Studies Society (Orient House) (Jerusalem)

Archive of the Alliance Israélite Universelle (Paris)

Başbakanlik Osmanli Arşivi (Istanbul)

Bibliothéque Nationale Manuscripts Division, Richelieu (Paris)

Central Archive for the History of the Jewish People (Jerusalem)

Central Zionist Archives (Jerusalem)

Centre de Documentation du Grand Orient de France et de la Franc-Maçonnerie Européenne (Paris)

Institute for the Revival of Islamic Research and Heritage (Abu Dis, Jerusalem)

Israel State Archives (Jerusalem)

Jerusalem Municipality Archives (Jerusalem)

Jewish National and University Library Manuscripts Division (Jerusalem) Khalidi Library (Jerusalem)

Ministère des Affaires Étrangères de France, Quai d'Orsay (Paris)

National Archives (College Park)

Oral History Program, Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University (Jerusalem)

Tel Aviv Municipal Archive (Tel Aviv)

Türkiye Büyük Logesi (Grand Lodge of Turkey)(Istanbul)

Yeshiva University Archives, Israeli Broadside Collection (New York)

Newspapers

El-Destour
(Constitution; Istanbul)

Filas
īn
(Palestine; Jaffa)

Ha-Hashkafa
(The Observation; Jerusalem)

Ḥavaẓelet
, (Lily; Jerusalem)

Ha-Ḥerut
(Liberty; Jerusalem)

Al-Hilāl
(The Crescent; Cairo)

Al-Ittibḥād āl-'Uthmānī
(Ottoman Union; Beirut)

Al-Karmil
(The Carmel; Haifa)

El Liberal
(Liberty; Jerusalem)

Luaḥ Ereẓ-Israel
(Eretz-Israel Almanac; Jerusalem)

Al-Manār
(The Lighthouse; Cairo)

Al-Munādī
(The Crier; Jerusalem)

Al-Muqta
af
(The Digest; Cairo)

Al-Nafīr al-'Uthmānī
(The Ottoman Clarion; Jerusalem)

Al-Najāḥ
(Success; Jerusalem)

New York Times

Ha-‘Olam
(The Globe; Cologne)

El Paradizo
(Paradise; Jerusalem)

Ha-Po‘el ha-ẓa'ir
(The Young Worker; Jaffa)

Al-Quds
(Jerusalem)

Al-Quds al-Sharīf/Kudüs-ü şerif
(Noble Jerusalem; Jerusalem)

Ṣawt al-'Uthmaniyya
(The Voice of Ottomanism; Jaffa)

Takvim-i Vekayi
(Register of Events; Istanbul)

La Tribuna Libera
(The Free Tribune; Salonica)

Ha-Ẓvi
(The Deer; Jerusalem)

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