Authors: Laura Eldridge
43.
C. Chang, M. Donaghy, and N. Poulter, “Migraine and stroke in young women: a case-control study,”
British Medical Journal
318 (1999): 13–18.
44.
Some doctors believe that POP use is safer than combined use for women with aura-including migraines.
45.
Bushnell, “Stroke in Women: Risk and Prevention Throughout the Lifespan,” 1161–76.
46.
Deanne Stein, “Birth Control and Stroke,”
MyHeartCentral.com
, June 23, 2006,
http://www.healthcentral.com/heart-disease/c/19/1812/birth-stroke/pf/
.
47.
K. Rexrode, C. Hennekens, W. Willett, et al., “A prospective study of body mass index, weight change, and risk of stroke in women,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
277 (1997): 1539–45.
48.
Bushnell, “Stroke in Women: Risk and Prevention Throughout the Lifespan,” 1161–76.
49.
The American Cancer Society, “Global Cancer Facts and Figures, 2007,”
www.cancer.org
.
50.
One meta-analysis estimated that women who don’t take the Pill have a 2.4 percent risk of developing the disease through age seventy-four, and those who use OCs for twelve years have a 1.4 percent risk. Another study thought the benefit would be greater, positing that eight years of use could prevent nearly 1,900 cases of the disease in the United States alone. Still other studies insist that the benefit would be smaller: an estimate published in the
Lancet
reckoned that if 100,000 women between the ages of sixteen and thirty-five used the Pill, only ten lives would be saved.
51.
J. J. Schlesselman, “Net effect of oral contraceptive use on the risk of cancer in women in the United States,”
Obstetrics & Gynecology
85, no. 5 (1995): 793–801; J. J. Schlesselman, “Risk of endometrial cancer in relation to use of combined oral contraceptives: A practitioner’s guide to metanalysis,”
Human Reproduction
12, no. 9 (1997): 1851–63.
52.
D. B. Petitti and D. Porterfield, “Worldwide variations in the lifetime probability of reproductive cancer in women: Implications of best case and worst case assumptions about the effect of oral contraceptive use,”
Contraception
45, no. 2 (1992): 93–104.
53.
The American Cancer Society, “Cancer Statistics 2009 Presentation,”
www.cancer.org
.
54.
Royal College of General Practitioners Oral Contraceptive Study, “Further analysis of mortality in oral contraceptive users,”
Lancet
1 (1981): 541.
55.
A. L. Coker, S. Harlap, and J. A. Fortney, “Oral contraceptives and reproductive cancers: Weighing the risks and benefits,”
Family Planning Perspectives
25 (1993): 17–21.
56.
“Pill has stopped 100,000 deaths,”
BBC News
, January 28, 2008,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7207812
.
57.
“Ovarian cancer and oral contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of data from 45 epidemiological studies including 23,257 women with ovarian cancer and 87,303 controls,”
Lancet
371, no. 9609 (January 2008): 303–14.
58.
Ibid.
59.
Jon Zonderman and Laurel Shader,
Birth Control Pills
(New York: Chelsea House, 2006), 38.
60.
D’Souza, “Risks and benefits of oral contraceptive pills,” 137.
61.
J. F. Fraumeni Jr., J. W. Lloyd, E. M. Smith, and J. K. Wagoner, “Cancer mortality among nuns: Role of marital status in etiology of neoplastic disease in women,”
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
42 (1969): 445–68.
62.
Cristina Bosetti, Francesca Bravi, Eva Negri, and Carlo La Vecchia, “Oral contraceptives and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis,”
Human Reproduction Update
1, no. 1 (2009): 1–10.
63.
D’Souza and John Guillebaud, “Risks and benefits of oral contraceptive pills,” 138.
64.
The American Cancer Society, “Cancer Statistics 2009 Presentation,” 2009,
www.cancer.org
.
65.
Schlesseiman, “Net effect of oral contraceptive use on the risk of cancer in women in the United States,” 793–801.
66.
A. L. Coker, S. Harlap, J. A. Fortney, “Oral Contraceptives and reproductive cancers: Weighing the risks and benefits,”
Family Planning Perspectives
25 (1992): 17–21.
67.
Dickey,
Managing Contraceptive Pill Patients
, 180.
68.
Barbara Seaman,
The Greatest Experiment Ever Performed on Women: Exploding the Estrogen Myth
(New York: Hyperion, 2003).
69.
Barbara Seaman and Laura Eldridge,
The No-Nonsense Guide to Menopause
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008), 152.
70.
L. A. G. Ries, M. P. Eisner, and C. L. Kosary, et. al.,
SEER Cancer Statistics Review
, 1975–2000, (Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, 2003).
71.
Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer, “Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53,297 women with breast cancer and 100,239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies,”
Lancet
347 (1996): 1713–27.
72.
Petra M. Casey, James R. Cerhan, and Sandhya Pruthi, “Oral Contraceptive Use and the Risk of Breast Cancer,”
Mayo Clinic Proceedings
83, no. 1 (January 2008): 86–91.
73.
Tara Parker Pope,
The Hormone Decision
(New York: Rodale, 2007), 68.
74.
Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine, “Hormonal contraception: Recent advances and controversies,”
Fertility and Sterility
90, no. 3 (November 2008): S106.
75.
C. Giersig, “Progestin and Breast Cancer: The Missing Piece of the Puzzle,”
Bundesgesundheitsbl—Gesundheitsforsch—Gesundheitsschutz
51 (2008): 782–86 (784).
76.
Allison Gandey, “Sudden Decline in Breast Cancer Could Be Linked to HRT,”
Medscape Medical News
, December 14, 2006,
www.medscape.com
.
77.
Christina A. Clarke, et. al., “Recent declines in Hormone Therapy Utilization and Breast Cancer Incidence: Clinical and Population-Based Evidence,”
Journal of Clinical Oncology
24, no. 33 (November 20, 2006): e49-e50.
78.
Jacques Rossouw, e-mail to author, October 7, 2009.
79.
Dawn M. Grabrick, Lynn C. Hartmann, and James R. Cerhan, et al., “Risk of Breast Cancer with Oral Contraceptive Use in Women With a Family History of Breast Cancer,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
284, no. 14 (October 11, 2000): 1791–98; Wylie Burke, “Oral contraceptives and breast cancer: A note of caution for high-risk women,”
Journal of the American Medical Association
284, no. 14 (October 11, 2000): 1837–38.
80.
L. A. Brinton, M. P. Vessey, R. Flavel, and D. Yeates, “Risk factors for benign breast disease,”
American Journal of Epidemiology
113 (1981): 203–14.
81.
Dickey,
Managing Contraceptive Pill Patients
, 184.
82.
Ibid.
83.
L. Rosenberg, “The Risk of liver neoplasia in relation to combined oral contraceptive use,”
Contraception
43 (1991): 643–52.
84.
Jane Bennett and Alexandra Pope,
The Pill: Are You Sure It’s For You?”
(Crow’s Nest, NSW, Australia: Allen and Unwin, 2008), 40–41.
85.
Jerilynn C. Prior, “Choices for Effective Contraception in 2006,” CEMCOR,
http://www.cemcor.ubs.ca/print/110
.
86.
Kirsten A. Oinonen and Dwight Mazmanian, “To what extent do oral contraceptives influence mood and affect?”
Journal of Affective Disorders
70 (2002): 299–40 (229).
87.
Susan Rako, conversation with the author, October 5, 2009.
88.
The World Health Organization, “Mental Health Report,” December 13, 2006,
www.who.org
.
89.
Oinonen, “To what extent do oral contraceptives influence mood and affect?” 230.
90.
Ibid., 234.
91.
Liane Will-Shahab, Steffen Bauer, and Ullrich Kunter, et. al., “St. John’s Wort extract (Ze 117) does not alter the pharmacokinetics of a low-dose oral contraceptive,”
European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
64 (2009): 287–94.
92.
Jonathan Schaffir, “Hormonal Contraception and Sexual Desire: A Critical Review,”
Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy
32, no. 4 (September 2006): 305.
93.
Lorraine Dennerstein, interviewed on Catalyst, “Women’s Libido,” May 20, 2004,
http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1112389.htm
.
94.
Ibid.
95.
Cynthia Graham, interview with author, October 7, 2009.
96.
Stephanie A. Sanders, Cynthia A. Graham, Jennifer L. Bass, and John Bancroft, “A prospective study of the effects of oral contraceptives on sexuality and well-being and their relationship to discontinuation,”
Contraception
64 (2001): 51–58.
97.
Teri Greco, Cynthia A. Graham, and John Bancroft, et al., “The effects of oral contraceptives on androgen levels and their relevance to premenstrual mood and sexual interest: A comparison of two triphasic formulations containing norgestimate and either 35 or 25 ug of ethinyl estradiol,”
Contraception 76
(2007): 8–17.