Ancient Rome: An Introductory History (47 page)

Page 236

The Pont du Gard aqueduct near Nîmes, France, built by Marcus
Agrippa between 20 and 16 B.C. (Courtesy of Alan T. Kohl,
Art Images for College Teaching)

sacrifices to fulfill his duty, so others after him can enjoy the fruit of his labors. Vergil had not yet finished the poem when he died, and he commanded that it be burned; fortunately for future generations, his friend Lucius Varius refused to carry out the order. Varius and Plotius Tucca edited the poem, at the order of Augustus himself.

To the Romans, who were searching for answers to the question, "Why an empire, when we cannot rule ourselves?" the travails of Aeneas gave an answer, told to him by Achises in the Underworld: "Roman, remember to rule counties with powerthat is what you do besthabituate them to peace, spare the conquered, and war down the proud" (Vergil,
Aeneid
VI.851-853).
The Aeneid
thus helped to unify Italy, to formulate and express the empire's political reason for being, and to foster the national consciousness.

According to Vergil's
Aeneid
, then, the empire existed because it was in the best interest of the conquered; there is much truth in

Page 237

that statement. In 29
B.C
. the Senate formally closed the temple of Janus, thus showing that Rome and its territories were at peace; this had happened only twice before in Roman history, during Numa's reign and in 235
B.C
. The temple had to be reopened shortly after, but still most of the empire was at peace, and peace brought prosperity.

Other poets of the times show why the age is rightly called the Golden Age of Latin literature. Maecenas noticed the talent of Horace, the son of a freedman, and gave him a farm in the Sabine hill country. Horace wrote lyric poetry (
Odes
and
Epodes
), satires (
Sermones
, literally, "chats"), and letters in poetic form (
Epistulae
). Another famous poet of the age was Ovid, who wrote epic poetry and elegies. His
magnum opus
is his
Metamorphoses
, an epic poem of tales of transformations, from the beginning of the world to his day; it is the source of such familiar stories as Apollo and Daphne, Narcissus and Echo, Pyramus and Thisbe, Baucis and Philemon, Arachne, Midas and the golden touch, and many more. His other famous surviving works are
Arnores, Ars amatoria, Fasti, Heroides, Tristia
, and
Epistulae ex Ponto
(the last two written when he was in exile). He was a master of the Latin hexameter (the meter of ancient epic poetry), ranked with Vergil. Like Ovid, Propertius and Tibullus wrote elegies about love. One famous historian of the age deserves mention: Livy, whose history of Rome,
Ab urbe condita
(From the Founding of the City), preserves the stories of Lucretia, Cincinnatus, Horace at the bridge, and others; his history treated of Roman history from the beginning to his day, but only one-quarter of his huge work survives. It is a great loss. (You will probably have noticed that many of the exciting stories of Roman history recounted in this book are drawn from Livy's work.)

Augustus also oversaw something of a revival of ancient Roman religion and morals. Many Romans had rightly sought reasons for the previous century of chaos, and they arrived at this answer: The gods were angry with the Romans for forsaking their ancient religion and the customs of their ancestors. So Augustus revived many religious festivals and games that had been neglected. He also built new temples, which renewed the Romans' belief in the majesty of the gods. Particularly important to Augustus was the

Page 238

cultivation of the worship of Apollo. The Battle of Actium had been fought in an area sacred to Apollo, and his temple looked down upon the scene of battle; furthermore, Augustus' mother, Atia, said his real father had been Apollo.

The literature of Horace and Vergil praised the simple, devout life. Augustus also lived according to his ideals: He lived modestly, while others with his power, influence, and fame would have maintained a palace and regal lifestyle; except on public occasions, he wore clothes made from wool spun by his wife and daughters. One time when he was dining at the home of a noble, one of the nobleman's slaves broke an expensive cup. The owner proceeded to have the slave whipped. Thereupon Augustus called for all the expensive cups to be brought and then broke them, one by one. He instructed the aediles not to allow anyone into the Forum who was not wearing a toga.

August likewise sought to reform the degeneracy of the upper classes. For example, he passed a law concerning adulterers, according to which those guilty of adultery could be banished. When his own daughter Julia engaged in sexual misconduct, he banished her to the island Pandateria, where she was forbidden to see men, drink wine, or enjoy any sort of luxury. The Roman populace eventually began to pity her and begged Augustus to bring her back; bitterly he cursed the crowd, saying they should have daughters like his. He always referred to his daughter and granddaughter as "boils" and "cancers." On his deathbed Augustus ordered that Julia not be buried in the family mausoleum. Similarly, for some breach in morality, in
A.D
. 8 the poet Ovid was banished to Tomis, a town on the Black Sea. Scholars debate the reasons for his banishment; Ovid wrote only that the reason was
carmen et error
, "a poem and a mistake." Augustus also passed laws encouraging married couples to produce more children, whereby fathers of more than three children would obtain advancement in their careers, while female citizens who had more than three children could gain exemption from the requirement of having a guardian; a freedwoman could gain the exemption by having four. Childless couples, however, would have to forfeit their property to the state upon their deaths.

Page 239

One problem Augustus had difficulty in solving concerned his successor. He wanted the rule to stay within the family, but those whom he wanted to succeed him died: Marcellus, his nephew; then Agrippa; then Drusus, the son of his wife Livia by a previous marriage. Tiberius, another son of Livia by a previous marriage, was the only one remaining, and Augustus was not overly fond of Tiberius; he nonetheless adopted him and gave him training in the government of the empire. When Augustus died, in
A.D
. 14, Tiberius was prepared to take over.

Augustus ruled for more than forty-five years. He came to power when Rome most needed a steady ruler, and he provided stability. By the time of his death, Romans had not fought with other Romans since 31
B.C
., the borders were secure, and through the
pax Augusta
, the empire was prospering. All these accomplishments and more Augustus recorded in his
Res gestae
(Accomplishments), an account of his life's work, written in his simple and direct style. The Romans had lost some political liberties, but in return they received peace, stability, and responsible government. It is not a gross exaggeration to call his rule the Golden Age of Rome. At his funeral an eagle was released into the air from beneath his funeral pyre, to symbolize the ascent of his spirit into heaven. He was afterward deified.

Page 240

Chapter 24
The Julio-Claudian Emperors

Tiberius (A.D. 14-37): ''Tamquam Ambiguus Imperandi"

Augustus' successor Tiberius had a hard act to follow. He could do nothing that would measure up to the standard set by Augustusbelieved to have become a godwho had "joined monarchy with democracy, and secured freedom for the people, and made the freedom stable and orderly" (Dio LVI.43.4). For Tiberius to do anything less would be considered failure.

It also appears that Tiberius was not happy about becoming emperor. During his career (he was fifty-six when he became emperor), he had already sacrificed plenty for Rome, fighting in long, hard campaigns in Germany, Pannonia, and Illyricum. Augustus had compelled Tiberius to divorce his wife, Vipsania, whom he dearly loved (he missed her so badly that one day, after catching sight of her, he followed her and wept profusely), and to marry Augustus' libertine daughter Julia, obviously before her wild living had become common knowledge. When it became clear to him that Augustus preferred his nephew Marcellus and grandsons Lucius and Gaius as successors, Tiberius withdrew from Rome to the island of Rhodes, so he would not seem to be interfering with their careers; his disgust with Julia may have been an additional reason. Augustus was piqued by Tiberius' withdrawal and would not let him return to Rome until Livia interceded on her son's behalf. Only when all of Augustus' other possible heirs had died did he acknowledge Tiberius as his heir and successor; even then there was a catch, for Tiberius had to adopt his nephew Germanicus

Page 241

(grandson of Livia by a previous marriage) and place him ahead of his own son, Drusus, in line for the succession. It was quite clear to Tiberius that he had been Augustus' last choice for a successor, and Augustus' will even said so: "Since a horrible fate has snatched my sons Gaius and Lucius away from me, let Tiberius Caesar be heir to two-thirds of my estate" (Suetonius,
Tiberius
XXIII). Later gossips said that Augustus had appointed Tiberius as his successor precisely because of his shortcomings, for they would make everybody appreciate Augustus all the more.

Upon Augustus' death, Tiberius feigned hesitation in assuming the power, "as if uncertain about ruling" ("tamquam ambiguus imperandi"; Tacitus,
Annales
1.7). The Senate then begged him to take power. Tiberius offered to split the empire into three parts, and to rule one of the parts while the Senate ruled the other two, but the offer came to nothing. Tiberius' reluctance to take on the responsibility of governing the empire may well have been genuine. He is said to have commented that he was holding a wolf by the ears, and that those urging him to accept the emperor's power would make him a miserable and overworked slave. The last years of his life show some truth to his words.

Immediately after he accepted power, the armies on the Rhine revolted, since they wanted Germanicus, their beloved general, to be emperor, even though he did not want it or at least was willing to wait until Tiberius died. He barely restrained his soldiers from marching on Rome. From the Senate Tiberius could expect little help; many of its members, accustomed to Augustus' domination of politics, had become abject sycophants. "Consuls, senators, and knights made a mad dash into slavery," sneers Tacitus (
Annales
1.7), a bitter critic of Tiberius and the principate. Tiberius appears to have wanted the Senate to take the greater burden of running the empire, but the Senate constantly looked to the
princeps
for leadership and decision-making. One persistent criticism of Tiberius is that he never spoke his mind: "He never strove for the things that he wanted, and the things he said he did not mean; but saying words the entirely opposite of his intentions, he refused what he wanted and strove for what he hated" (Dio LVII.1). Another source mentions that Tiberius simply spoke obscurely. Perhaps Tiberius never spoke his true mind in hopes that the senators, not

Page 242

knowing his real opinion, would be forced to decide for themselves and would thus regain some backbone and independence. Years later Tiberius would mutter in Greek, every time he left the Senate, "Men ready for slavery!" (Tacitus,
Annales
III.65).

Nonetheless, Tiberius' rule began well. He brought all matters to the Senate for discussion. Ambassadors had to discuss affairs with the consuls and Senate, as well as with the emperor. One embassy complained to the consuls that they could make no headway with the emperor, for Tiberius wanted the consuls to conduct business with them. To show his respect, Tiberius also rose from his seat when the consuls entered the Senate. When one senator called him "lord," Tiberius told him not to insult him anymore. He often said, "I am master of my slaves, general of my soldiers, and
princeps
of all the rest" (Dio LVII.8). Another time Tiberius rebuked the Senate for giving him too much work and for not taking enough responsibility.

Other of his actions show his desire to stay out of the limelight and to diminish his stature. Tiberius finished the buildings begun by Augustus, but inscribed only Augustus' name on them. When Pompey's theater was destroyed by fire, and none of Pompey's descendants could restore it, Tiberius restored it, but inscribed only Pompey's name on it. Some cities in Asia Minor asked him for permission to build a temple in his honor and to worship him as a god; Tiberius refused their request. (Tacitus' bias is evident in relating this story, for he criticizes Tiberius for his modesty.) Another senator was accused of treason for melting down a silver statue of the emperor; Tiberius forbade the prosecution. When the Senate proposed renaming the month of November after him, the emperor responded, "And what will you do, if there should be thirteen Caesars?" (Dio LVII. 18.2).

Most of his rule was competent and good. The borders were secure, and peace prevailed. Germanicus diverted his rebellious army's attention with an invasion of Germany; they won back the standards lost by Varus' obliterated army and buried their bones. Otherwise, Tiberius followed Augustus' policy of not expanding the empire. The provinces were well governed, as Tiberius oversaw the prosecution of corrupt governors; to one governor, who had suggested raising taxes in the provinces, Tiberius wrote, "A

Other books

Bring Larks and Heroes by Thomas Keneally

Billy Purgatory and the Curse of the Satanic Five by Freeman, Jesse James

Devil's Pass by Sigmund Brouwer

The Icemark Chronicles: The Cry of the Icemark by Hill, Stuart

Down by the River by Lin Stepp

After the Party by Lisa Jewell

The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie by Muriel Spark

Paradise Man by Jerome Charyn

Measure of Darkness by Chris Jordan

The Winter of Our Discontent by John Steinbeck