A Wilderness So Immense (64 page)

5.
Herbert S. Klein,
The American Finances of the Spanish Empire: Royal Income and Expenditures in Colonial Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, 1680—1809
(Albuquerque, 1998), 15–29.

6.
Arthur Preston Whitaker,
The Spanish-American Frontier, 1783–179: The Westward Movement and the Spanish Retreat in the Mississippi Valley
(Lincoln, Neb., 1927), 68, 102; James Madison’s Notes of Debates, March 13, 1787,
Letters of Delegates,
24: 145.

7.
James Madison’s Notes of Debates, April 23, 1787; Rufus King to Jonathan Jackson, September 3, 1786,
Letters of Delegates,
24: 248; 23: 541; Diego de Gardoqui to the comte de Floridablanca, February 1, 1786, Legajo 3.893, Ap. 3, no. 7., Archivo Histórico Nacional, Madrid, quoted in Michael A. Otero, “The American Mission of Diego de Gardoqui, 1785–1789” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1949), 199. Otero’s literal translation is “Would that there were no such Mississippi in the world!”

8.
Jay to Jefferson, December 14, 1786,
Jefferson Papers,
10: 599.

9.
Jay to William Bingham, May 31, 1785,
Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay,
3: 154; Jay to Jefferson, April 24, 1787, ibid., 245.

10.
John Dawson, Speech to the Virginia Convention, June 24, 1788, in John P. Kaminski et al., eds.,
Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution, Ratification of the Constitution by the States: Virginia
10 (Madison, Wis., 1993), 1491, 1493; James Winthrop, “Agrippa IV,” December 4, 1787, ibid.,
Massachusetts
4 (Madison, Wis., 1997), 303, 383. Winthrop exaggerated: the nonslave population of the United States according to the census of 1790 was 3,231,647.

11.
Theodore Sedgwick to Caleb Strong, August 6, 1786 (emphasis added), Ephraim Paine to Robert R. Livingston, May 24, 1784,
Letters of Delegates,
21: 640, 23: 436; Stephen E. Patterson, “The Roots of Massachusetts Federalism: Conservative Politics and Political Culture Before 1787,” in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert,
Sovereign States in an Age of Uncertainty
(Charlottesville, 1981), 38–39.

12.
Robert A. Gross, ed.,
In Debt to Shays: The Bicentennial of an Agrarian Revolution
(Charlottesville, 1993), 1–3, 101–18, 121–22, 129–30; Joseph Parker Warren, ed., “Documents Relating to the Shays Rebellion,”
AHR
2 (1896–1897): 694–95; Kaminski et al., eds.,
Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution,
4: xxxviii-xl.

13.
Theodore Sedgwick to Caleb Strong, August 6, 1786, Rufus King to Jonathan Jackson, June 11, 1786,
Letters of Delegates,
23: 436–37, 353.

14.
Massachusetts Delegates to Governor James Bowdoin, September 3 and November 2, 1785, ibid., 22: 612, 716.

15.
Grayson to Madison and to Monroe, November 22, 1786, ibid., 24: 31,

16.
Gouverneur Morris reflecting upon the framing of the Constitution in a letter to Henry W Livingston, November 25, 1803; Max Farrand, ed.,
Records of the Federal Convention of 1787
(rev. ed., New Haven, 1937), 3: 401. Robert William Fogel asserted the greater value of waterways in
Railroads and American Economic Growth: Essays in Economic History
(Baltimore, 1964).

17.
Diary entry, October 4, 1784, Donald Jackson and Dorothy Twohig, eds.,
The Diaries of George Washington
(Charlottesville, 1976–1979), 3: 67 (emphasis added).

18.
Michael B. Chesson,
Richmond After the War, 1865–1890
(Richmond, 1981), 5.

19.
Virginia: A Guide to the Old Dominion
(New York, 1940; Richmond, 1992), 525.

20.
For the
Daily Advertiser,
September 17, 1789, Kenneth R. Bowling and Helen E. Veit, eds.,
The Diary of William Maclay and Other Notes on Senate Debates
(Baltimore, 1988), 406–10.

21.
Donald Creighton,
The Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence
(New York and Toronto, 1937 and 1956), 206–7. Creighton stated that his study “of the St. Lawrence as the inspiration and basis of a transcontinental, east-west system, both commercial and political in character” was “not meant to provide a final and self-sufficient interpretation of Canadian history” (ibid., iii, v), but it has much to offer Americans curious about our good neighbors to the north.

22.
Steven E. Siry
De Witt Clinton and the American Political Economy: Sectionalism, Politics, and Republican Ideology, 1787–1828
(New York, 1990).

23.
W. W. Abbot, “George Washington, the West, and the Union,” in Don Higginbotham, ed.,
George Washington Reconsidered
(Charlottesville, 2001), 199–202.

24.
George Washington to Jacob Reade, November 3, 1784, and to Henry Knox, December 5, 1784, ibid., 206–7.

25.
George Washington to George Plater, October 25, 1784, ibid., 207.

26.
Washington to Governor Benjamin Harrison, October 10, 1784,
Washington Papers,
2: 92–93.

27.
James Monroe to James Madison, September 29, 1786,
Letters of Delegates,
23: 576. Monroe’s letter to Mason is not extant, and Mason’s actual sentiments are not directly known. Mason had long upheld Virginia’s claim to
the Mississippi, and in 1786 Washington believed he “will advocate the navigation of that river,” as Mason did in the Virginia ratification debates of 1788; Robert A. Rutland, ed.,
Papers of George Mason, 1
725–1792 (Chapel Hill, 1970), 852n and passim.

28.
James Monroe to James Madison, September 29, 1786,
Letters of Delegates,
23: 576.

29.
Richard Henry Lee to George Washington, July 16, 1787, ibid., 24: 357. Richard Henry Lee described himself as “much interested in the establishment of a wise and free republic in Republic Massachusetts Bay, where yet I hope to finish the remainder of my days. The hasty, unpersevering, aristocratic genius of the south suits not my disposition”; quoted in Burton J. Hendrick,
The Lees of Virginia
(New York, 1935), 352.

30.
Henry Lee to Washington, April 21, July 3, August 7, August 12, September 8, and October 11, 1786,
Letters of Delegates,
23: 247, 382, 437–38, 440n, 554, 590–92. The evidence for Lee’s complicity is in Gardoqui’s confidential dispatches 14, 16, 17, 18, of November 29, 1786, May 12, July 6, and December 5, 1787, and his expense account for 1786–1787 (Archivo Central de Alcalá, Legajo 3895), cited in Samuel Flagg Bemis,
Pinckney’s Treaty: America’s Advantage from Europe’s Distress, 1783–1800
(Baltimore, 1926; rev. ed., New Haven, 1960), 94–95.

31.
James Madison to George Washington, November 8, Washington to Madison, November 18, Madison to Henry Lee, November 23, Madison to Thomas Jefferson, December 4, Edward Carrington to James Madison, December 18, and Henry Lee to Madison, December 20, 1786,
Madison Papers,
9: 166–68, 170–71, 175–76, 189–92, 218–20; Thomas Boyd,
Light-Horse Harry Lee
(New York, 1931), 152–63; Bemis,
Pinckney’s Treaty,
96.

32.
Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, March 15, 1784,
Jefferson Papers,
7: 25–27.

33.
For the
Daily Advertiser,
September 17, 1789,
Diary of William Maclay,
410 (emphasis added).

34.
Ibid.

1.
Edmund B. D’Auvergne,
Godoy: The Queen’s Favorite
(Boston, 1913), 26–27; Douglas Hilt,
The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs
(Tuscaloosa, 1987), 17.

2.
Quoted in Sir Charles Petrie,
King Charles III of Spain: An Enlightened Despot
(New York and London, 1971), 218.

3.
Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo, Book no. 3, from January 1, 1788, to May 18, 1792; City Archives, New Orleans Public Library, 60–61.

4.
Ibid.

5.
Ibid. The founding of this hospital by Andrés Almonester is ably treated in Christina Vella,
Intimate Enemies: The Two Worlds of the Baroness de Pontalba
(Baton Rouge, 1997), 46–49.

6.
Records and Deliberations of the Cabildo, Book no. 3, 60–61.

7.
Robertson,
Louisiana,
1: 247, 249–50.

8.
John D. Bergamini,
The Spanish Bourbons: The History of a Tenacious Dynasty
(New York, 1974), 103; D’Auvergne,
Godoy,
24; Douglas Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
17; Ramón Colón de Carvajal, “Clocks and Clock Workers for the King,” in Jana Martin, ed.,
The Majesty of Spain: Royal Collections from the Museo del Prado and the Patrimonio Nacional
(Jackson, Miss., 2001), 196; Petrie,
King Charles III of Spain,
223–27.

9.
Petrie,
King Charles III of Spain,
224.

10.
Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
15–16. Maria Luisa’s given names were Luisa Maria Teresa and she signed her personal letters Luisa; Gabriel H. Lovett,
Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain
(New York, 1965), 5n.

11.
D’Auvergne,
Godoy,
26–29; Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
17.

12.
Bergamini,
The Spanish Bourbons,
104; Jana Martin, ed.,
The Majesty of Spain,
44, 70, 85; Petrie,
King Charles III of Spain,
225.

13.
D’Auvergne,
Godoy,
26–35.

14.
Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
xiii; Petrie,
King Charles III of Spain,
226.

15.
Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
33, 60; Bergamini,
Spanish Bourbons,
106.

16.
Lovett,
Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain,
1: 24; Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
104; Bergamini,
Spanish Bourbons,
109.

17.
Bergamini,
Spanish Bourbons,
108.

18.
Ibid., 106, 109.

19.
Godoy’s
Memoirs
quoted in Hilt,
Troubled Trinity,
32–33.

20.
Annette Kolodny ed., “The Travel Diary of Elizabeth House Trist: Philadelphia to Natchez, 1783–84,” in William L. Andrews, ed.,
Journeys in New Worlds: Early American Women’s Narratives
(Madison, Wis., 1990), 215.

21.
Emily Foster, ed.,
The Ohio Frontier: An Anthology of Early Writings
(Lexington, Ky, 1996), 79; “Diary of Elizabeth House Trist,” 215.

22.
John Filson,
Kentucke
(Wilmington, Del., 1784), and Timothy Flint,
Indian Wars of the West
(Cincinnati, 1823), quoted in Bernard W Sheehan, “Paradise and the Noble Savage in Jeffersonian Thought,”
WMQ,
3d ser, 26 (1969): 333.

23.
The leaders of Virginia’s Loyal Land Company (one of several rival companies in the colony) were Dr. Walker, the mapmakers Peter Jefferson and Joshua Fry, and the Reverend James Maury, all from Albemarle County, along with John Lewis, from Staunton, and Edmund Pendleton, from Caroline County; Richard L. Morton,
Colonial Virginia
(Chapel Hill, 1960), 575–76; Malcolm J. Rohrbough,
The Trans-Appalachian Frontier: People, Societies, and Institutions, 1775–1850
(New York, 1978), 21–25. The percentage of slaves in Kentucky increased steadily from 16.9 percent in 1790, to 18.3 percent in 1800, 19.8 percent in 1810, and 22.5 percent in 1820, compared to the increase in the five southern Atlantic states from 35.3 percent in 1790 to 38.7 percent in 1820; Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, Historical, Demographic, Economic, and Social Data: The United States, 1790–1970, at
www.icpsr.umich.edu
.

24.
Lexington
Kentucky Gazette,
August 18, 1787, quoted in Rohrbough,
Trans-Appalachian Frontier,
30.

25.
Michael A. Bellesiles,
Arming America: The Origins of a National Gun Culture
(New York, 2000).

26.
The combined population of the Apalache, Caddo, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Tunica tribes in the Lower Mississippi area was about thirty thousand; Daniel H. Usner, Jr.,
Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley Before 1783
(Chapel Hill, 1992), 114–15n; David J. Weber,
The Spanish Frontier in North America
(New Haven, 1992), 274.

27.
John G. Clark,
New Orleans, 1718–1812: An Economic History
(Baton Rouge, 1970), 212.

28.
Lawrence Kinnaird, ed.,
Spain in the Mississippi Valley, 1765–1794, Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year
1945 (Washington, D.C., 1946), 2: xviii, 125.

29.
Clark,
New Orleans: An Economic History,
213–14.

30.
Daniel Clark to James Madison, September 8, 1803,
Territorial Papers,
45; Josephe Xavier de Pontalba and Phineas Bond quoted in Arthur P. Whitaker, “The Commerce of Louisiana and the Floridas at the End of the Eighteenth Century,”
HAHR
8 (1928): 197n, 198n.

31.
The late Julian P. Boyd presented Knox’s tabulations in his “Threat of Disunion in the West,” a chapter-length editorial note in
Jefferson Papers,
19: 437.

32.
Carlos de Grand-Pré to Governor Miró, April 14, 1790, in Kinnaird, ed.,
Spain in the Mississippi Valley,
3: 325.

33.
Miró to Josef de Ezpeleta, January 28 and February 20, 1788, Spanish Despatches, Book 3, Legajo 1394, nos. 5 and 48.

34.
Miró to Josef de Ezpeleta, February 20, 1788, Spanish Despatches.

35.
Miró to Domingo Cabello, October 30, 1789, Spanish Despatches, Book 4, Legajo 1425, no. 36; Gerald M. Craig,
Upper Canada: The Formative Years, 1784–1841
(Toronto, 1963), 9–10.