The Shining Sea (13 page)

The sick were not permitted to remain on the gun deck at night. They stayed below on the berth deck. But Porter required that they be brought up to the gun deck every morning and their hammocks slung in a cool place, where they would not be disturbed by men at work.

He also insisted on the utmost cleanliness for everyone on the ship. Each morning he had the crew mustered at their quarters, where their officers inspected them. He recommended bathing at least once a day. Officers were required to show the men an example by doing it themselves. In addition, Porter fumigated the ship every morning. And he ordered the berth deck kept in a clean and wholesome state, putting Lieutenant
Finch in charge. “Lime [was] provided in tight casks for the purpose of white-washing, and sand for dry-rubbing it,” he explained, “and orders given not to wet it if there should be a possibility of avoiding it.” He insisted “that no wet clothes or wet provisions should be permitted to remain on the berth deck, or that the crew should be permitted to eat anywhere but the gun deck, except in bad weather.” Having established the above and other regulations, he “exhorted the officers to keep [the men] occupied constantly during working hours in some useful employment,” Between the hours of four and six in the afternoon, however, they were allowed time for amusement—whenever the duties of the ship permitted, of course.

Porter had good wind sails rigged to provide ventilation below as Cook had done. “As we have but few who sleep on the berth deck,” he noted, “we have no foul air generated; and it is found that good wind sails, and a little vinegar evaporated . . . are sufficient to keep the air perfectly sweet.”

The greatest menace to the crew remained scurvy. In Porter's view, “Sudden and frequent changes of climate, great exposures to inclement weather, violent fatigues . . . unseemliness, bad provisions and waters” were its principal causes. This, of course, was not true. The real cause remained a mystery until twentieth-century science found that a vitamin C deficiency was the culprit. But Porter knew that the way to prevent scurvy had been known since at least the time of Cook's first voyage, which began in 1768.

Cook's experience in the Royal Navy had made him especially sensitive to the problem. When he first entered the service in June 1755, he was shocked by how badly seamen were treated aboard ships of war in the British navy. Getting men to serve was already difficult, and having to resort to the heinous practice of pressgangs was so common, he assumed that once the men were aboard they would be well treated, but the opposite was the case. Most British captains paid no attention to the men's health. Innocent tars fell sick and died from scurvy and other ship diseases at astonishing rates. Conditions were bad enough that large numbers of men looked for every opportunity to desert.

Even more disheartening to Cook was the discovery that skippers in the Royal Navy considered the scourge of scurvy normal. He observed
their shocking indifference on his very first voyage in HMS
Eagle
, a 60-gun warship, on patrol from Lands End in England to Cape Clear in Ireland, under a Captain Hamer. To his astonishment, Cook observed dozens of men suffering from scurvy after having been on board only a few weeks. Conditions became so bad that in a few months Captain Hamer was forced to put into port and send 130 men to hospital. They were the lucky ones; at least they were alive. The man who passed for a surgeon had himself died from scurvy. All of this happened while the
Eagle
was in sight of land nearly every day.

Drawing on all the knowledge then available about ways to prevent scurvy, particularly the work of James Lind, Cook implemented a program during three lengthy voyages that was astonishingly successful. Not one man aboard his ships ever died from scurvy during the many years he was at sea.

There was no excuse for any captain in 1812 having this disease ravage his ship, yet through indifference and sheer stupidity, scurvy remained a threat in both British and American warships. Porter was determined not to let it ruin his cruise. Using what he learned from Cook and other writers, and his own experience, Porter hoped his health regime would protect the
Essex
from the ravages of scurvy and other diseases. He was convinced that with “precautions to procure exercise and cleanliness, with proper ventilations and fumigations, with the best provisions, and the purest water, perfectly free from all bad taste and smell, he would command a young, active, healthy, and contented crew.” Of course, diet was supremely important, which is why Porter insisted on having lemon, lime, and oranges aboard, along with the best water he could obtain, fresh vegetables, and fresh food in general, especially fish.

He was particularly enthusiastic about the good effects of lemon juice. During his time in the Mediterranean he discovered that it was as cheap as vinegar and quite effective. He bragged that his “men were never affected by the scurvy” as other crews were. “On long voyages through different climates, where the transitions from hot to cold and from dry to wet are very great and frequent, the ravages of the scurvy are more dreadful,” he explained in a letter, “and lemon juice is found to be indispensably necessary as a preventative to that disease; for after long use of salt provisions,
fresh provisions and vegetables have not always the desired effect, as they frequently bring on dysenteries more destructive to life than the scurvy, indeed, there have been instances of persons on long voyages who have suffered greatly by scorbutic affections that have abstained entirely from the use of salt provisions.”

Porter's concern for the well-being of the crew did not lead to any slackening of discipline. He ran a tight ship, but he was fair, and his men respected him. When the voyage began, he announced a general pardon for all previous offenses, and then threatened that the first man he had to punish would receive three dozen lashes. The threat was real. No one doubted it. The captain's tough measures were accepted because if they were to obtain the riches they all sought, the ship would have to perform to his high standards. As an example, he expected the
Essex
to be cleared for action and the crew at their stations, ready to fight within fifteen minutes of being summoned. Hands consistently fulfilled this demanding requirement, knowing how important it would be when faced with an enemy frigate. Porter was also wise enough not to abuse his power. Although he insisted that all orders be obeyed without hesitation or demur, he expected officers to act with civility toward their subordinates, on the grounds that in no way did courtesy detract from discipline.

Later in life, Porter gave this striking description of the powers of a sea captain:

A man of war is a petty kingdom, and is governed by a petty despot. . . . The little Tyrant, who struts his few fathoms of scoured plank, dare not unbend, lest he should lose that appearance of respect from his inferiors which their fears inspire. He has therefore no society, no smiles, no courtesies for or from anyone. Wrapped up in his notions of his own dignity, and the means of preserving it, he shuts himself up from all around him. He stands alone, without the friendship or sympathy of one on board; a solitary being in the midst of the ocean.

As he was wont to do, Porter exaggerated. Carried to extremes, the kind of self-imposed isolation he described above could be self-defeating,
and while he was captain of the
Essex
he did not fall into that trap. He maintained the respect of his men without having to stand so far apart from them that he lost the capacity to lead them effectively into battle.

A
T SUNRISE ON
N
OVEMBER
26,
A LOOKOUT SPOTTED THE FIRST
Cape Verde Island—St. Nicholas, a dry, uninviting place. Porter saw no vegetables or trees, and began thinking that the provisions he needed would not be forthcoming on any of the archipelago's ten islands. Viewed from the sea, they appeared barren and desolate. Erupting volcanoes in ages past and scorching tropical sun had turned them into sterile places inhospitable to vegetation. The largest and most important was Santiago, where Porto Praia, the capital and first place of rendezvous with Commodore Bainbridge, was located.

Not only did the islands have an inhospitable look, but Porter could not be sure of the reception he would get from the authorities. The Cape Verdes were Portuguese colonies, after all, and Britain was Portugal's closest ally. It was true that since Napoleon had invaded Portugal in November 1807 and the royal family had fled with their court to Brazil, the islands had become a neglected backwater of a declining empire. But they were still Portuguese territory, and even though Portugal was supposedly neutral in the war between Britain and America, officials in the islands might not want to traffic with an American warship. There might also be problems with the Royal Navy. Although Porto Praia was not a place where British men-of-war normally stopped, from time to time they did, and one or two might be there now.

On November 27, the
Essex
approached the island of Santiago. As Porter surveyed the countryside, he was disappointed at what he saw. Arid hillsides, sugarcane fields, and banana plantations dominated the landscape. Villages and flocks of goats dotted the mountainsides, but the soil was so poor that no vegetation, except for a scattering of coconut trees, was visible. He was so disappointed that he contemplated just looking into the harbor at Porto Praia and seeing if Bainbridge and Lawrence were there, but not stopping if they weren't. He could make do with the provisions he had and move on to the next point of rendezvous, the island of Fernando de Noronha.

On the afternoon of the 27th, the
Essex,
flying American colors, sailed quietly into Porto Praia. It was a dilapidated place dependent for its livelihood on provisioning a few merchant ships and on the slave trade. Defenses were a sham. Porter estimated that thirty men could take the place without suffering any injury. The only other vessel he saw was a small Portuguese schooner. Bainbridge and Lawrence obviously weren't there, and since this was the day they were scheduled to leave, Porter assumed they had left, but he had to make certain. He sent Lieutenant Downes ashore to visit the governor and find out if any American warships had visited recently, and if supplies were available, although he had not made up his mind if he would remain to receive them. He had not dropped his anchor yet.

Downes returned shortly with news that the governor was taking an afternoon nap and could not be disturbed. The lieutenant governor could not have been more solicitous, however. He promised whatever salutes and other civilities Porter required, as well as information and supplies. He also invited the captain to meet with the governor. Given this unexpectedly warm reception, Porter decided to stay for a time; his ship and crew were in excellent condition, but the men could use a run ashore, and Fernando de Noronha was 1,400 miles away.

Taking advantage of the governor's hospitality, Porter remained for five days. Every member of the crew had time ashore. No enemy warships appeared to ruin their holiday. The governor was at pains to tell Porter that he had good relations with the American merchantmen who visited for supplies, but that British merchants never put in. A few British men-of-war did stop from time to time and annoyed everyone—particularly the governor. He found their officers insufferably haughty.

Porter was able to obtain most of the food and supplies he needed, although not as much water as he would have liked. The surf was so high the crew had difficulty transporting it to the ship. A variety of exceptionally fine tropical fruits were put on board—lemons, limes, coconuts, and an amazing amount of oranges. Porter found them to be the best tropical fruits he ever tasted. Sheep, pigs, goats, fowls, and very fine turkeys were also available, as well as some poor beef. The island's rum was dreadful, but the crew craved it, and many subterfuges were used to obtain it. The
natives hid it in coconuts they were sending aboard, draining out the milk and filling the inside with rum. It was impossible to control the amount coming into the ship. Not that Porter made much of an effort. As long as the drinking stayed within reasonable bounds, he allowed the traffic to continue. He also permitted the crew to bring a variety of live animals aboard, from goats to chickens and monkeys. By the time he was ready to sail, he thought of himself as the skipper of Noah's Ark.

CHAPTER

7

I
N THE
S
OUTH
A
TLANTIC
, D
REAMING OF THE
P
ACIFIC

A
LTHOUGH
B
AINBRIDGE HAD NOT VISITED THE
C
APE
Verdes Islands as planned,
David Porter continued on to the next place of rendezvous, hoping the
Constitution
and the
Hornet
would be there. On December 2, 1812, he stood out from Porto Praia, steering southeast toward Africa to conceal his actual destination. As soon as he was out of sight he changed course, turning south southwest, making for the next point of rendezvous, the Portuguese penal colony on the island of Fernando de Noronha, 220 miles off the northeast coast of Brazil.