The Good and Evil Serpent (2 page)

Such discoveries became possible because I kept two lines of inquiry in central focus. First, I sought to discern what the serpent symbolized to the ancients (while keeping an eye on what was happening recently, especially in India, Africa, Australia, and the southern states in the United States). This task took me into diverse disciplines (viz., the philology of all ancient Near Eastern languages, archaeology, anthropology, sociology, iconography, and symbology). Second, simultaneously observing the various meanings of serpent symbolism, I periodically refined criteria for discerning which of the possible meanings was probably intended by the artist or author (authorial intent) and what additional meanings might have been added by those who saw the object or read the text (readers’ response).

No book has been more difficult for me to write. None has taken so long. Yet the joys of discovery have been exceptional. I feel we have lost the oneness with nature that shaped the spiritual journeys of our ancestors. I know we habitually fail to hear the subtleties in symbols that alone make life full of excitement. May you share this joy as you rediscover yourself in the texts and the images. May you obtain the poetic vision of the Yahwist and the Fourth Evangelist.

Do the biblical narratives not indicate that the first humans and Jesus knew the wisdom of the serpent? Can one wisely claim to be perceptive and remain in ignorance?

JHC
Princeton Theological Seminary, Universität Tübingen,
Ecole Biblique de Jérusalem,
Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II,
Albright Institute in Jerusalem,
and Hebrew University, Jerusalem

Acknowledgments

I intend this book for all those who approach the Bible with the freedom to raise challenging questions. Those who say that they believe “everything” in the Bible probably have never read everything in the Bible. The Bible is full of passages that are replete with meaning, but the symbolic and deeply theological meaning of a passage has far too often been missed by many, including biblical experts. The present work reveals that the symbolic meaning of a passage in my favorite biblical book, the Fourth Gospel, has been missed by modern commentators. And many of these experts have written two or three volumes on the twenty-one chapters in the Fourth Gospel. Yet the meaning of John 3:14 was perceived, if only in nuances, by such luminaries as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Augustine, and Calvin.

If my research enables others to appreciate the biblical record, then it has been worthwhile. If my labors help others to puzzle over obtuse or confusing passages and to discover a hidden gem of wisdom, then I will have been richly rewarded.

I am grateful to so many who have helped me in this study. Joe Zias of the Rockeller Museum, Jerusalem, helped me study the artifacts in that famous museum. Zaher Barakat, a specialist in antiquities, helped me obtain serpent objects from ancient Israel. Dr. Johnny Awwad, now of the Near East School of Theology in Beirut, helped me find and obtain many of the books and articles cited. Michael Davis, Shane A. Berg, Joseph M. Eason, and Brian D. Rhea have also assisted me in locating sources and books in Princeton, and Enno Popkos has aided me with this task in Tübingen. I appreciate Susan Laity’s editorial skills; she found some errors and helped me improve this work. Professor Hermann Lichtenberger has been of inestimable assistance as I continued my work in the Institut für antikes Judentum und hellenistische Religionsgeschichte in the Eberhard-Karls Universität Tübingen. Richard C. Miller, Scott J. Pearson, and James J. Foster helped me with digitizing and cropping images. Alice Y. Yafeh helped me complete the work on the Selected Bibliography. Ross Voss assisted me in the study of serpent images in Ashkelon. Khader Baidun, an antiquities dealer in Jerusalem’s Old City who has provided artifacts for Moshe Dayan, Nelson Glueck, and others, as well as a friend for over thirty years, worked with me to obtain ancient ophidian objects. Dr. Shimon Gibson drew my attention to the “Bezetha Vase,” which is now in the Palestine Exploration Fund office in London, and helped me study this vase and contextualize it in ancient Jerusalem. Professor O. Keel spent days with me in Freiburg, helping me to comprehend the subtleties of symbology. Professor A. Biran shared with me his discoveries at Dan. Professors McGrath, Mann, and Ryan of the Warburg Institute in London helped me peruse the vast amount of images of the serpent in antiquity and more recently. Dr. Mikhail Piotrovsky, Director of the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, was most gracious and helped me study the priceless treasures in that museum. Professors Del Verme and De Simone of the Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II helped with my work in the Archaeological Museum in Naples and in Pompeii. Lara Guglielmo was a devoted and gifted research assistant when I was a visiting professor in Naples. Dr. Michal Dayagi-Mendels and Professor Doron Mendels continue to be special dialogue partners. I express appreciations to the Research Council of Princeton Theological Seminary, the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung, the American Schools of Oriental Research (Annual Professor), and the Hebrew University, Jerusalem (Lady Davis Professor), for financial assistance. Grants from the Foundation on Christian Origins and the Edith C. Blum Foundation helped me cover some expenses for research.

Numerous libraries and museums have offered exceptional assistance and provided some essential photographs or images. I cannot list them all, but I am especially indebted for such help and images to the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, the British Museum in London, the Palestine Exploration Fund in London, the Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II and Archaeological Museum in Naples, the National Library and National Museum in Athens, the Archaeological Museum at Epid-aurus, the Archaeological Museums on Crete at Herakleion and Chania, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Brooklyn Museum of Art, the Skirball Museum in Jerusalem, and the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. The initials JHC at the end of an illustration’s caption indicate the photograph was taken by the author. My colleagues, old and new, at the Ecole Biblique generously supported me during the last year in which I worked in the famous library in the Ecole. The late Noel Freedman discussed each chapter with me, making valuable suggestions for improving the clarity of presentation; he again proved to be a super editor. Additional appreciations and indebtedness will be noted in the following pages.

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