Full quotation
:
| “
Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill
.”
|
With ellipsis
:
| “
Todayâ¦we vetoed the bill
.”
|
Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the simplest. Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction use various approaches that they find suitable.
Some writers and editors feel that no spaces are necessary.
Example
:
| I don't knowâ¦I'm not sure
.
|
Others enclose the ellipsis with a space on each side.
Example
:
| I don't knowâ¦I'm not sure
.
|
Still others put a space either directly before or directly after the ellipsis.
Examples
:
| I don't knowâ¦I'm not sure.
|
I don't knowâ¦I'm not sure
.
|
A four-dot method and an even more rigorous method used in legal works require fuller explanations that can be found in other reference books.
Rule 1
. Many writers use an ellipsis whether the omission occurs at the beginning of a sentence, in the middle of a sentence, or between sentences.
A common way to delete the beginning of a sentence is to follow the opening quotation mark with an ellipsis, plus a bracketed capital letter:
Example
:
| “â¦
[A]fter hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill
.”
|
Other writers omit the ellipsis in such cases, feeling the bracketed capital letter gets the point across.
For more on brackets, see “Parentheses and Brackets,” earlier in this chapter.
Rule 2
. Ellipses can express hesitation, changes of mood, suspense, or thoughts trailing off. Writers also use ellipses to indicate a pause or wavering in an otherwise straightforward sentence.
Examples
:
| I don't knowâ¦I'm not sure
.
|
Pride is one thing, but what happens if she�
|
He said, “Iâ¦really don'tâ¦understand this.”
|
Rule 1
. Use a question mark only after a direct question.
Correct
:
| Will you go with me?
|
Incorrect
:
| I'm asking if you will go with me?
|
Rule 2a
. A question mark replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect
:
| Will you go with me?
.
|
Rule 2b
. Because of Rule 2a, capitalize the word that follows a question mark.
Some writers choose to overlook this rule in special cases.
Example
:
| Will you go with me? with Joe? with anyone?
|
Rule 3a
. Avoid the common trap of using question marks with
indirect questions
, which are statements that contain questions. Use a period after an indirect question.
Incorrect
:
| I wonder if he would go with me?
|
Correct
:
| I wonder if he would go with me
.
|
OR
|
I wonder: Would he go with me?
|
Rule 3b
. Some sentences are statementsâor demandsâin the form of a question. They are called
rhetorical questions
because they don't require or expect an answer. Many should be written without question marks.
Examples
:
| Why don't you take a break
.
|
Would you kids knock it off
.
|
What wouldn't I do for you!
|
Rule 4
. Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.
Example
:
| You do care, don't you?
|
Rule 5
. The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Examples
:
| She asked,
“
Will you still be my friend?
”
|
The question is part of the quotation.
|
Do you agree with the saying,
“
All's fair in love and war
”?
|
The question is outside the quotation.
|
Rule 1
. Use an exclamation point to show emotion, emphasis, or surprise.
Examples
:
| I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
|
Yay! We won!
|
Rule 2
. An exclamation point replaces a period at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect
:
| I'm truly shocked by your behavior!
.
|
Rule 3
. Do not use an exclamation point in formal business writing.
Rule 4
. Overuse of exclamation points is a sign of undisciplined writing. Do not use even one of these marks unless you're convinced it is justified.
Capitalization
Capitalization
is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Experienced writers are stingy with capitals. It is best not to use them if there is any doubt.
Rule 1
. Capitalize the first word of a document and the first word after a period.
Rule 2
. Capitalize proper nounsâand adjectives derived from proper nouns.
Examples
:
| the Golden Gate Bridge
|
the Grand Canyon
|
a Russian song
|
a Shakespearean sonnet
|
a Freudian slip
|
With the passage of time, some words originally derived from proper nouns have taken on a life, and authority, of their own and no longer require capitalization.
Examples
:
| herculean
(from the ancient-Greek hero Hercules)
|
quixotic
(from the hero of the classic novel
Don Quixote
)
|
draconian
(from ancient-Athenian lawgiver Draco)
|
The main function of capitals is to focus attention on particular elements within any group of people, places, or things. We can speak of
a lake in the middle of the country
, or we can be more specific and say
Lake Michigan
, which distinguishes it from every other lake on earth.
Capitalization Reference List
- Brand names
- Companies
- Days of the week and months of the year
- Governmental matters
Congress
(but
congressional
),
the U.S. Constitution
(but
constitutional
),
the Electoral College, Department of Agriculture
.
Note
: Many authorities do not capitalize
federal
or
state
unless it is part of the official title:
State Water Resources Control Board
, but
state water board; Federal Communications Commission
, but
federal regulations
.
- Historical episodes and eras
the Inquisition, the American Revolutionary War, the Great Depression
- Holidays
- Institutions
Oxford College, the Juilliard School of Music
- Manmade structures
the Empire State Building, the Eiffel Tower, the Titanic
- Manmade territories
Berlin, Montana, Cook County
- Natural and manmade landmarks
Mount Everest, the Hoover Dam
- Nicknames and epithets
Andrew
“
Old Hickory
”
Jackson; Babe Ruth, the Sultan of Swat
- Organizations
American Center for Law and Justice, Norwegian Ministry of the Environment
- Planets
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
, but policies vary on capitalizing
earth
, and it is usually not capitalized unless it is being discussed specifically as a planet:
We learned that Earth travels through space at 66,700 miles per hour
.
- Races, nationalities, and tribes
Eskimo, Navajo, East Indian, Caucasian, African American
(
Note
:
white
and
black
in reference to race are lowercase)
- Religions and names of deities
Note
: Capitalize
the Bible
(but
biblical
). Do not capitalize
heaven
,
hell
,
the devil
,
satanic
.
- Special occasions
the Olympic Games, the Cannes Film Festival
- Streets and roads
Lowercase Reference List
Here is a list of categories
not
capitalized unless an item contains a proper noun or proper adjective (or, sometimes, a trademark). In such cases, only the proper noun or adjective is capitalized.
- Animals
antelope, black bear, Bengal tiger, yellow-bellied sapsucker, German shepherd
- Elements
Always lowercase, even when the name is derived from a proper noun:
einsteinium, nobelium
,
californium
- Foods
Lowercase except for brand names, proper nouns and adjectives, or custom-named recipes:
Tabasco sauce
,
Russian dressing, pepper crusted bluefin tuna, Mandy's Bluefin Surprise
- Heavenly bodies besides planets
Never capitalize the
moon
or the
sun
.
- Medical conditions
Epstein-Barr syndrome, tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease
- Minerals
- Plants, vegetables, and fruits
poinsettia, Douglas fir, Jerusalem artichoke, organic celery, Golden Delicious apples
- Seasons and seasonal data
spring, summertime, the winter solstice, the autumnal equinox, daylight saving time
Rule 3
. A thorny aspect of capitalization: where does it stop? When does the
Iraq war
become the
Iraq War
? Why is the legendary
Hope Diamond
not the
Hope diamond?
Everyone writes
New York City
, so why does the
Associated Press Stylebook
recommend
New York state
? There aren't always easy formulas or logical explanations. Research with reference books and search engines is the best strategy.
In the case of brand names, companies are of little help, because they capitalize any word that applies to their merchandise.
Domino's Pizza
or
Domino's pizza
? Is it
Ivory Soap
or
Ivory soap
, a
Hilton Hotel
or a
Hilton hotel
? Most writers don't capitalize common nouns that simply describe the products (
pizza
,
soap
,
hotel
), but it's not always easy to determine where a brand name ends. There is
Time
magazine but also the
New York Times Magazine
. No one would argue with
Coca-Cola
or
Pepsi Cola
, but a case could be made for
Royal Crown cola
.
If a trademark starts with a lowercase word or letter (e.g.,
eBay
,
iPhone
), many authorities advise capitalizing it to begin a sentence.
Example
:
| EBay opened strong in trading today
.
|
Rule 4
. Capitalize titles when they are used before names, unless the title is followed by a comma. Do not capitalize the title if it is used after a name or instead of a name.
Examples
:
| The president will address Congress
.
|
Chairman of the Board William Bly will preside at the conference
.
|
The chairman of the board, William Bly, will preside
.
|
The senators from Iowa and Ohio are expected to attend
.
|
Also expected to attend are Senators Buzz James and Eddie Twain
.
|
The governors, lieutenant governors, and attorneys general called for a special task force
.
|
Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, and Attorney General Dalloway will attend
.
|
Note
Out of respect, some writers and publishers choose to capitalize the highest ranks in government, royalty, religion, etc.
Examples
:
| The President arrived
.
|
The Queen spoke
.
|
The Pope decreed
.
|
Many American writers believe this to be a wrongheaded policy in a country where, theoretically, all humans are perceived as equal.
Rule 5
. Titles are not the same as occupations. Do not capitalize occupations before full names.
Examples
:
| director Steven Spielberg
|
owner Helen Smith
|
coach Biff Sykes
|
Sometimes the line between title and occupation gets blurred. One example is
general manager
: is it a title or an occupation? Opinions differ. Same with
professor
: the
Associated Press Stylebook
considers
professor
a job description rather than a title, and recommends using lowercase even before the full name:
professor Robert Ames
.
Rule 6a
. Capitalize a formal title when it is used as a direct address.
Example
:
| Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
|
Rule 6b
. Capitalize relatives' family names (kinship names) when they immediately precede a personal name, or when they are used alone in place of a personal name.
Examples
:
| I found out that Mom is here
.
|
You look good, Grandpa
.
|
Andy and Opie loved Aunt Bee's apple pies
.
|
However, these monikers are not capitalized with possessive nouns or pronouns, when they follow the personal name, or when they are not referencing a specific person.
Examples
:
| My mom is here
.
|
Joe's grandpa looks well
.
|
The James brothers were notorious robbers
.
|
There's not one mother I know who would allow that
.
|
Rule 6c
. Capitalize nicknames in all cases.
Examples
:
| Meet my brothers, Junior and Scooter
.
|
I just met two guys named Junior and Scooter
.
|
Rule 7
. Capitalize specific geographical regions. Do not capitalize points of the compass.
Examples
:
| We had three relatives visit from the West
.
|
Go west three blocks and then turn left
.
|
We left Florida and drove north
.
|
We live in the Southeast
.
|
We live in the southeast section of town
.
|
Most of the West Coast is rainy this time of year
. (referring to the United States)
|
The west coast of Scotland is rainy this time of year
.
|
Some areas have come to be capitalized for their fame or notoriety:
Examples
:
| I'm from New York's Upper West Side
.
|
I'm from the South Side of Chicago
.
|
You live in Northern California; he lives in Southern California
.
|
Rule 8
. In general, do not capitalize the word
the
before proper nouns.
Examples
:
| I'm reading the
London Times.
|
They're fans of the Grateful Dead
.
|
In special cases, if the word
the
is an inseparable part of something's official title, it may be capitalized.
Example
:
| We visited The Hague
.
|
Rule 9
. Do not capitalize
city, town, county
, etc., if it comes before the proper name.
Examples
:
| the city of New York
|
New York City
|
the county of Marin
|
Marin County
|
Rule 10
. Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.
Example
:
| Bill said,
“
That job we started last April is done
.”
|
Rule 11
. For emphasis, writers sometimes capitalize a midsentence independent clause or question.
Examples
:
| One of her cardinal rules was, Never betray a friend
.
|
It made me wonder, What is mankind's destiny?
|
Rule 12
. Capitalize the names of specific course titles, but not general academic subjects.
Examples
:
| I must take history and Algebra 101
.
|
He has a double major in European economics and philosophy
.
|
Rule 13
. Capitalize art movements.
Example
:
| I like Surrealism, but I never understood Abstract Expressionism
.
|
Rule 14
. Do not capitalize the first item in a list that follows a colon.
Example
:
| Bring the following: paper, a pencil, and a snack
.
|
For more on capitalization after a colon, go to “Colons,” Rules 1, 3, and 4, in Chapter Two.
Rule 15
. Do not capitalize “
the national anthem
.”
Rule 16a
. Composition titles: which words should be capitalized in titles of books, plays, films, songs, poems, essays, chapters, etc.? This is a vexing matter, and policies vary. The usual advice is to capitalize only the “important” words. But this isn't really very helpful. Aren't all words in a title important?
The following rules for capitalizing composition titles are universal.
- Capitalize the title's first and last word.
- Capitalize verbs, including all forms of the verb
to be
(
is
,
are
,
was
, etc.).
- Capitalize all pronouns, including
it
,
he
,
who
,
that
, etc.
- Capitalize
not
.
- Do not capitalize
a
,
an
, or
the
unless it is first or last in the title.
- Do not capitalize the word
and
,
or
, or
nor
unless it is first or last in the title.
- Do not capitalize the word
to
, with or without an infinitive, unless it is first or last in the title.
Otherwise, styles, methods, and opinions vary. Small words such as
or
,
as
,
if
, and
but
are capped by some, but lowercased by others.
The major bone of contention is prepositions. The
Associated Press Stylebook
recommends capitalizing all prepositions of more than three letters (e.g.,
With
,
About
,
Across
). Others advise lowercase until a preposition reaches five or more letters. Still others say not to capitalize any preposition, even big words like
regarding
or
underneath
.
Hyphenated words in a title also present problems. There are no set rules. Some writers, editors, and publishers choose not to capitalize words following hyphens unless they are proper nouns or proper adjectives (
Ex-Marine
but
Ex-husband
). Others capitalize any word that would otherwise be capped in titles (
Prize-Winning
,
Up-to-Date
).
Rule. 16b
. Many books have subtitles. When including these, put a colon after the work's title and follow the same rules of composition capitalization for the subtitle.
Example:
| The King's English: A Guide to Modern Usage
|
Note that
A
is capitalized because it is the first word of the subtitle.
Suppose you are reviewing a book whose title on the cover is in capital letters:
THE STUFF OF THOUGHT
. Beneath, in smaller capital letters, is the subtitle,
LANGUAGE AS A WINDOW INTO HUMAN NATURE
. All sides would agree that the main title should be written,
The Stuff of Thought
. But depending on which capitalization policy you choose, the subtitle might be any of the following:
Language
As
a Window
Into
Human Nature
Language
as
a Window
Into
Human Nature
Language
As
a Window
into
Human Nature
Language
as
a Window
into
Human Nature
Capitalizing composition titles is fraught with gray areas. Pick a policy and be consistent.