Authors: Kathleen O'Neal Gear
The Betrayal (44 page)
1
The gospels contained in our modern New Testament were written decades after the events they describe. The Gospel of Mark, probably written in Rome, is the earliest gospel, dating to around 68â70 C.E. Matthew and Luke clearly relied upon Mark's gospel, incorporating it into their own gospels without substantial changes. Matthew was likely composed in Antioch, the capital of Syria, and dates to around the year 80. The writings of Luke, who authored not only the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, but probably the Pastoral Letters attributed to Paul, date to 80â85. The Gospel of John was the latest to be written, dated to around 100â110 C.E., though some scholars argue for an earlier date, 90â95.
And let us be clear at this point that the documents themselves are silent as to their authors' identities. During the second century, early Christian scholars attributed the texts to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John, but nowhere in the texts is the author cited.
As well, our current New Testament gospels were not the earliest versions of those gospels. The oldest surviving papyrus of any gospel, known as the Rylands Papyrus, is a 3.4-inch-tall Greek fragment of the Gospel of John that dates to around 125â35 C.E. The earliest copies of the other gospels date to the fourth or fifth centuries. We know that over time, the gospels underwent dramatic editing, and there is good
evidence that the evangelists invented or interpreted the stories to make them relevant to their place and time. John, for example, originally ended at chapter 20. An early editor clearly didn't like John's ending, so he created a new one. This is made clear by the fact that the additional chapter, which immediately follows, arrives at a completely different conclusion than the original ending. (For more on this see Galambush, pp. 284â86.)
evidence that the evangelists invented or interpreted the stories to make them relevant to their place and time. John, for example, originally ended at chapter 20. An early editor clearly didn't like John's ending, so he created a new one. This is made clear by the fact that the additional chapter, which immediately follows, arrives at a completely different conclusion than the original ending. (For more on this see Galambush, pp. 284â86.)
In addition, virtually every scholar agrees that the earliest versions of the Gospel of Mark end at 16:7 or 16:8. Clement of Alexandria and Origen, two of the earliest Church scholars who lived in the 200s, had no knowledge of verses 9â20. In the fourth century, Eusebius and Jerome knew of the existence of this longer ending, but also said it was absent from almost all Greek manuscripts they had seen. In the oldest known Bible, the fourth-century “Sinaiticus” document, the women find the tomb empty and are told by a man in white that he has risen. They run away in terror. The gospel ends, simply, with an empty tomb. There is no resurrection, and no “sightings” of Jesus.
The longer ending of Mark was clearly added in the fourth century, probably by a pious scribe who was copying Mark and decided he needed a more dramatic ending, one akin to the endings of Matthew and Luke. Verses 9â20 were not the only “other” endings of Mark, either. Two more invented endings were also circulated in the early years of the faith. Both were shorter versions.
But do not mistake this historical analysis to mean that early Christians did not believe in the resurrection or the post-crucifixion sightings of Jesus. Some certainly did, as the letters of Paul, dated to the 50s, documentâthough it's clear Paul believed in a spiritual resurrection, not a bodily resurrectionâbut there was a great argument about these issues among early Christians.
For a more lengthy discussion of these subjects, please review the entries under the evangelists' names in
The Anchor Bible Dictionary
edited by David Noel Freedman, and also see Tabor, pp. 230â33.
The Anchor Bible Dictionary
edited by David Noel Freedman, and also see Tabor, pp. 230â33.
2
The ancient system of weights and measures was not precise, but generally, one cubit equaled about eighteen inches. Four hundred cubits was one furlong. One fathom was the stretch of the arms from fingertip to fingertip. One Roman stadium equaled six hundred
Roman feet. Sixty stadia were about 7.5 miles. One hundred sixty stadia equaled 19.5 miles.
Roman feet. Sixty stadia were about 7.5 miles. One hundred sixty stadia equaled 19.5 miles.
3
The Gospel of Philip II, 59, 1â6: “For it is by a kiss that the perfect conceive and give birth ⦠we receive conception from the grace that is in one another.”
4
The Gospel of John, 6:15.
5
Luke 22:36; cf. 12:51.
6
The Hebrew term for
Passover
.
Passover
.
7
While we do not know for certain that Judas of Galilee was crucified, it is likely, since his sons, James and Simon (Yakob and Shimon), were crucified by the Romans for revolutionary activities, and Menahem was the leader of the rebellion in Jerusalem just before the war with Rome in 66. Eleazar, probably Judas' grandson, led the defense of the fortress of Masada. For more on this see the
Anchor Bible Dictionary,
the tenth entry, for
Judas.
Anchor Bible Dictionary,
the tenth entry, for
Judas.
8
Although translators throughout time have gone to great lengths to eliminate all references, Jesus was often charged with being a magician, as in Sanhedrin 43a. Also, in John 18:28 ff., he is charged with being “a doer of evil,” common parlance under the Roman law codes for being a magician. In addition there is the story in Matthew that after the crucifixion, “the high priests and Pharisees met with Pilate, saying ⦠âThat magician said, while he was yet alive, after three days I shall arise.'” Mark 9:38 makes it clear that people used Jesus' name in conjuring spells, though Acts 19:13â16 says it backfired on those who tried it. Jesus' own followers were accused of being magicians. For example, the following was listed by Roman historian Suetonius as one of the praiseworthy reforms of Emperor Nero: “Penalties were imposed on the Christians, a kind of men with a new superstition (that involves) the practice of magic.”
Anyone interested in the details of this charge should read Morton Smith's book,
Jesus the Magician.
Also, John Hull's book,
Hellenistic Magic and the Synoptic Tradition,
p. 116 ff., does a good job of showing how the canonical gospel writers, particularly Matthew, assiduously deleted references to Jesus' magical works.
Jesus the Magician.
Also, John Hull's book,
Hellenistic Magic and the Synoptic Tradition,
p. 116 ff., does a good job of showing how the canonical gospel writers, particularly Matthew, assiduously deleted references to Jesus' magical works.
9
The Aramaic term is
Bar Abba,
though New Testament readers will be more familiar with the Greek rendering:
Barabbas
.
Bar Abba,
though New Testament readers will be more familiar with the Greek rendering:
Barabbas
.
10
During Roman times, the high priesthood was limited to the Sadducean aristocracy. This meant that the ordinary person saw the Temple hierarchy as a group of wealthy Jews intimately allied with the hated Roman oppressors. Judge Haim Cohn gives an excellent discussion of this tradition in his book
The Trial and Death of Jesus,
pp. 22â23.
The Trial and Death of Jesus,
pp. 22â23.
11
The Gospel of Thomas, 40:42.
12
This happened in 135 C.E. See the
Anchor Bible Dictionary
entry for
Golgotha
for more on this.
Anchor Bible Dictionary
entry for
Golgotha
for more on this.
13
This was a difficult subject in early Christianity. In Asia Minor, Easter was celebrated on the Jewish Passover (
Pesach
), that being the date of the crucifixion in the Gospel of John. But Matthew, Luke, and Mark make the Last Supper the Passover meal, and place the crucifixion a day later. In the 150s Polycarp of Smyrna visited Rome to discuss this issue, but no agreement could be reached. Rome insisted upon celebrating Easter on the Sunday following the full moon after the spring equinox, and nothing was going to change its mind. In the 190s, Bishop Victor of Rome was so upset that the churches in Asia Minor celebrated Easter on the Jewish Passover that he threatened to excommunicate anyone who did not adopt the Roman date. In the midâthird century Bishop Stephen of Rome got into a vehement argument over this subject with Bishop Cyprian of Carthage, who had the support of the Greek East. It was the first occasion on which the Bishop of Rome is known to have invoked Matthew 16:18 to justify the primacy of Rome. This disagreement would be one of the lasting disputes between the Eastern Church and the Western Church. (See the
Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity,
pp. 36â37.)
Pesach
), that being the date of the crucifixion in the Gospel of John. But Matthew, Luke, and Mark make the Last Supper the Passover meal, and place the crucifixion a day later. In the 150s Polycarp of Smyrna visited Rome to discuss this issue, but no agreement could be reached. Rome insisted upon celebrating Easter on the Sunday following the full moon after the spring equinox, and nothing was going to change its mind. In the 190s, Bishop Victor of Rome was so upset that the churches in Asia Minor celebrated Easter on the Jewish Passover that he threatened to excommunicate anyone who did not adopt the Roman date. In the midâthird century Bishop Stephen of Rome got into a vehement argument over this subject with Bishop Cyprian of Carthage, who had the support of the Greek East. It was the first occasion on which the Bishop of Rome is known to have invoked Matthew 16:18 to justify the primacy of Rome. This disagreement would be one of the lasting disputes between the Eastern Church and the Western Church. (See the
Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity,
pp. 36â37.)
14
The Secret Book of James, 13:17â19.
15
After the Council of Nicea defined which texts would be included in the New Testament, Constantine ordered that the books of Christian “heretics”âmeaning the books that had been excludedâbe hunted out and destroyed. Within a few years, to be a Christian heretic became a capital crime: treason. Once both church and state agreed that it was legal, and righteous, to execute Christians who disagreed with the official dogma, everyone was in trouble, particularly pagans and Jews. Pagan worship was formally banned, and the authority of the
Jewish patriarchate was abolished forever. In 388, the bishop of Callinicus, on the Euphrates, attacked and burned a synagogue. Bishop Ambrose of Milan declared himself prepared to burn every synagogue, “that there might not be a place where Christ is denied,” and it was considered an act of treason for anyone to rebuild a burned synagogue. The first pogrom in history occurred in 414 C.E. It was an organized, violent assault on Alexandria's Jews, which entirely wiped out the city's Jewish community. (See Carroll, pp. 176, 206â07.)
Jewish patriarchate was abolished forever. In 388, the bishop of Callinicus, on the Euphrates, attacked and burned a synagogue. Bishop Ambrose of Milan declared himself prepared to burn every synagogue, “that there might not be a place where Christ is denied,” and it was considered an act of treason for anyone to rebuild a burned synagogue. The first pogrom in history occurred in 414 C.E. It was an organized, violent assault on Alexandria's Jews, which entirely wiped out the city's Jewish community. (See Carroll, pp. 176, 206â07.)
16
The Greek word used in the New Testament is
adelphos,
meaning “brother.” There is no case in the New Testament where it means “stepbrother.” Also, it is simply not true that
adelphos
can mean “cousin.” There is a Greek term for cousin,
anepsios.
When Mark 6:3 says that Jesus is the son of Mary and brother (
adelphos
) of James, Joses, Jude, and Simon, his meaning is clear. He does not call any of these men Jesus'
anepsios.
As well, in both Galatians 1:19, and I Corinthians 9:5, Paul uses the term
adelphos
. Since he uses the term
anepsios
in Col. 4:10, he obviously knew the difference. If Paul had meant “cousin” he would have used the word
anepsios
in Galatians and Corinthians. He didn't.
adelphos,
meaning “brother.” There is no case in the New Testament where it means “stepbrother.” Also, it is simply not true that
adelphos
can mean “cousin.” There is a Greek term for cousin,
anepsios.
When Mark 6:3 says that Jesus is the son of Mary and brother (
adelphos
) of James, Joses, Jude, and Simon, his meaning is clear. He does not call any of these men Jesus'
anepsios.
As well, in both Galatians 1:19, and I Corinthians 9:5, Paul uses the term
adelphos
. Since he uses the term
anepsios
in Col. 4:10, he obviously knew the difference. If Paul had meant “cousin” he would have used the word
anepsios
in Galatians and Corinthians. He didn't.
For more on this discussion of Jesus' brothers and sisters, please see John P. Meier's book
A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus,
vol. 1, pp. 324â332.
A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus,
vol. 1, pp. 324â332.
17
A new day began at around 7:00 P.M. at night. That means the date changed at this time. Hours were calculated based on that date change, so that Nisan the 15th began at the first hour of night, or 7:00 P.M. The second hour was 8:00 P.M., etc. The first hour of day, Nisan 15th was the next morning at 7:00 A.M. This fact is critical for understanding the dates associated with the crucifixion. If Jesus rose on Sunday, then, according to the Jewish method of determining time, Jesus did not rise in three days, but two.
18
For more on the
essen,
see the
Anchor Bible Dictionary
entry for
Essenes.
essen,
see the
Anchor Bible Dictionary
entry for
Essenes.
19
As was Roman law.
20
The Sanhedrin was composed of seventy members, plus Moses.
21
Though the New Testament uses the term
procurator
for Pontius Pilate, that is not correct. It's an inaccuracy that actually helps us date
the documents. We know from numerous archaeological inscriptions that, during the reigns of emperors Augustus and Tiberias, provincial governors were addressed by the title
Praefectus.
This is certainly true of inscriptions about Pontius Pilate, who is listed as being the
Praefectus Iudaeae,
the Prefect of Judea. Only after the reign of Emperor Claudius began in the year 41 were such governors called
procurators.
(See the
Anchor Bible Dictionary
entry for
Procurator.
)
procurator
for Pontius Pilate, that is not correct. It's an inaccuracy that actually helps us date
the documents. We know from numerous archaeological inscriptions that, during the reigns of emperors Augustus and Tiberias, provincial governors were addressed by the title
Praefectus.
This is certainly true of inscriptions about Pontius Pilate, who is listed as being the
Praefectus Iudaeae,
the Prefect of Judea. Only after the reign of Emperor Claudius began in the year 41 were such governors called
procurators.
(See the
Anchor Bible Dictionary
entry for
Procurator.
)
22
Which he did, in 36 C.E. When a Samaritan prophet proclaimed that he would reveal the vessels of the tabernacle to his people, Pilate sent his troops to intercept the crowd and slaughtered them. Josephus reports this in his
Antiquities,
XVIII:85â89. Also, we know that in the year 70 over 11,600 Samaritans were murdered on the top of Mount Gerizim when the Romans attacked the mountain and surrounded those worshipping there. Even today, the Samaritan community near Nablus celebrates its annual feasts on Mount Gerizim.
Antiquities,
XVIII:85â89. Also, we know that in the year 70 over 11,600 Samaritans were murdered on the top of Mount Gerizim when the Romans attacked the mountain and surrounded those worshipping there. Even today, the Samaritan community near Nablus celebrates its annual feasts on Mount Gerizim.
23
In I Corinthians 1:18, Paul notes that nonbelievers considered it “sheer folly” to proclaim a crucified man as God's son. A century later Church Father, Justin Martyr, said that calling a crucified man divine was utterly offensive to nonbelievers, and wrote: “They say that our madness consists in the fact that we put a crucified man in second place after the unchangeable and eternal God, the Creator of the World” (1 Apol. 13.4). It is also interesting to note that the original profession of faith established at the Council of Nicea in 325, the Nicene Creed, mentioned neither the death of Jesus nor his crucifixion, probably for this same reason.
24
See 1 John 5:8.
25
Papias wrote between 60 and 130 C.E. We have only fragments of his works, and know of his books,
Exposition of the Lord's Logia,
because they are referenced by later Church historians. Irenaeus, who lived from 140 to 202 C.E., and was bishop of Leon in Gaul, mentions Papias' books in his most important work, the
Adversus Haereses,
literally “Against Heresies.” In that work, Irenaeus says that Papias was “a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp.” Polycarp was bishop of Smyrna in Asia Minor and lived from 70 to 156 C.E. Papias' books are mentioned again by Eusebius, “the Father of Church History,” who lived from 260 to 339 C.E., and served as bishop of Caesarea, in Roman Palestine.
Exposition of the Lord's Logia,
because they are referenced by later Church historians. Irenaeus, who lived from 140 to 202 C.E., and was bishop of Leon in Gaul, mentions Papias' books in his most important work, the
Adversus Haereses,
literally “Against Heresies.” In that work, Irenaeus says that Papias was “a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp.” Polycarp was bishop of Smyrna in Asia Minor and lived from 70 to 156 C.E. Papias' books are mentioned again by Eusebius, “the Father of Church History,” who lived from 260 to 339 C.E., and served as bishop of Caesarea, in Roman Palestine.
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