Lone Wolf Terrorism (39 page)

99
. “Graham Faces Charge of Murder,”
Denver Post
, November 14, 1955, p. 3.

100
. “Famous Cases and Criminals.”

101
. Ibid.

102
. Ibid.

103
. This discussion of Panos Koupparis (“Commander Nemo”) is drawn from Simon,
Terrorist Trap
, pp. 335–37, and from Jeffrey D. Simon, “Lone Operators and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” in
Hype of Reality: The “New Terrorism” and Mass Casualty Attacks
, ed. Brad Roberts (Alexandria, VA: Chemical and Biological Arms Control Institute, 2000), pp. 75–76, 78–79. I have included Koupparis in this discussion of criminal lone wolves even though he had help from more than one or two
other people. However, since that support came entirely from his family members, it seems to be a special case of an individual who uses close relatives to assist him in threatening a terrorist attack.

104
. Pericles Solomides, “Blackmailers Had Plans for Bombings,”
Cyprus Mail
, May 19, 1987, p. 1.

105
. Simon,
Terrorist Trap
, p. xii.

106
. Ted Ottley, “Ted Kaczynski: The Unabomber,” TruTV Crime Library,
http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/kaczynski/15.html
(accessed June 9, 2011).

107
. For a discussion of the Croatian hijacking, see Simon,
Terrorist Trap
, pp. 110–19.

108
. Ibid., p. xii.

109
.
Lone-Wolf Terrorism
, pp. 27–28.

110
. Ibid., pp. 39–40.

111
. Ottley, “Ted Kaczynski.”

112
. Kevin Fagan, “Victims React to Kaczynski's Plea Deal/They're Sad, Angry But Glad It's Over,” SFGate, January 24, 1998,
http://articles.sfgate.com/1998-01-24/news/17710993_1_hugh-scrutton-unabomber-theodore-kaczynski-unabomber-explosion
(accessed June 10, 2011). Epstein died in 2011 at the age of seventy-seven.

113
. “Psychological Evaluation of Theodore Kaczynski,” 1998,
http://www.paulcooijmans.com/psychology/unabombreport2.html
(accessed June 10, 2011).

114
. This discussion of Muharem Kurbegovic (the “Alphabet Bomber”) is drawn from Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Alphabet Bomber,” in
Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons
, ed. Jonathan B. Tucker, BCSIA Studies in International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 71–94; Simon,
Terrorist Trap
, pp. xxvi–xxvii; and Simon, “Lone Operators and Weapons of Mass Destruction,” pp. 76–79.

115
. Transcript of tape recovered on August 9, 1974, in Maywood, California, following call to CBS (Los Angeles Police Department Item No. 1340, Files, Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office).

116
. Transcript of tape recovered August 16, 1974, at 11th and Los Angeles Streets (Los Angeles Police Department Item No. 1345, Files, Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office).

117
. Simon, “Alphabet Bomber,” p. 92.

118
. Transcript of tape recovered August 20, 1974, at Sunset and Western, the site of Kurbegovic's arrest (Los Angeles Police Department Item No. 1337 and Item No. 1338, Files, Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office).

119
. Simon, “Alphabet Bomber,” p. 92.

120
. Ibid., pp. 92–93.

CHAPTER 3. WHY LONE WOLVES ARE SO DANGEROUS

1
.
Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks
, US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-559 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1993), p. 54.

2
. Jeffrey D. Simon,
Terrorists and the Potential Use of Biological Weapons: A Discussion of Possibilities
(Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1989).

3
. Milton Leitenberg,
The Problem of Biological Weapons
(Stockholm: Swedish National Defense College, 2004), pp. 27–29; David C. Rapoport, “Terrorism and Weapons of the Apocalypse,” in
Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation
, ed. Henry Sokolski and James M. Ludes (London: Frank Cass, 2001), p. 22.

4
. David E. Kaplan and Andrew Marshall,
The Cult at the End of the World: The Incredible Story of Aum
(London: Arrow Books, 1996), pp. 93–112, 289.

5
. Jeffrey D. Simon, “Technological and Lone Operator Terrorism: Prospects for a Fifth Wave of Global Terrorism,” in
Terrorism, Identity, and Legitimacy: The Four Waves Theory and Political Violence
, ed. Jean E. Rosenfeld (London: Routledge, 2011), p. 58.

6
. Rebecca L. Frerichs, Reynolds Mathewson Salerno, Kathleen Margaret Vogel, et al.,
Historical Precedence and Technical Requirements of Biological Weapons Use: A Threat Assessment
, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND2004-1854, May 2004, p. 3.

7
. Simon,
Terrorists and the Potential Use of Biological Weapons
; Jeffrey D. Simon, “Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism: Understanding the Threat and Designing Responses,”
International Journal of Emergency Mental Health
1, no. 2 (Spring 1999): 81–89.

8
. The following discussion is drawn from Simon, “Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Terrorism,” pp. 83–84.

9
. Jessica Eve Stern, “The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord,” in
Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons, BCSIA Studies in International Security
, ed. Jonathan B. Tucker (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 139–57.

10
. “Evidence of Anthrax Labs near Kandahar,” ABC News, March 25, 2002,
http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=80052&page=1
(accessed September 9, 2011).

11
. Graham Allison,
Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe
(New York: Times Books, 2004), p. 26.

12
. Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Forgotten Terrorists: Lessons from the History of Terrorism,”
Journal of Terrorism and Political Violence
20, no. 2 (April/June 2008): 207.

13
. Richard Preston,
The Hot Zone
(New York: Random House, 1994); “Fort Detrick, Maryland,”
GlobalSecurity.org
,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/facility/fort_detrick.htm
(accessed September 22, 2011).

14
. Noah Shachtman, “Anthrax Redux: Did the Feds Nab the Wrong Guy?”
WIRED
, April 2011,
http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/03/ff_anthrax_fbi/all/1
(accessed September 30, 2011).

15
. Ibid.

16
.
Amerithrax Investigative Summary
, United States Department of Justice, February 19, 2010, p. 10.

17
. Shachtman, “Anthrax Redux.”

18
. Ibid.

19
.
Amerithrax Investigative Summary
, p. 61.

20
. David Willman,
The Mirage Man: Bruce Ivins, the Anthrax Attacks, and America's Rush to War
(New York: Bantam Books, 2011), p. 13.

21
. Ibid., p. 48.

22
. Ibid., p. 9.

23
. Ibid., pp. 55–56.

24
. Ibid., p. 72.

25
.
Amerithrax Investigative Summary
, p. 39.

26
. Ibid.

27
. Willman,
Mirage Man
, pp. 49–50.

28
. Ibid., pp. 62–63.

29
. Ibid., p. 61.

30
. Ibid., p. 67.

31
. Ibid., p. 65.

32
. Scott Shane, “Panel on Anthrax Inquiry Finds Case against Ivins Persuasive,”
New York Times
, March 23, 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/24/us/24anthrax.html?_r=1&hp
(accessed October 16, 2011).

33
.
Amerithrax Investigative Summary
, p. 8.

34
. Ibid., p. 10.

35
. Ibid., p. 9.

36
. Ibid.

37
. Ibid., pp. 2–3.

38
. “Amerithrax or Anthrax Investigation,” Famous Cases and Criminals, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/anthrax-amerithrax
(accessed September 9, 2011).

39
. Shachtman, “Anthrax Redux.”

40
. Ibid.

41
. Ibid.

42
.
Amerithrax Investigative Summary
; see also “Amerithrax or Anthrax Investigation.”

43
. Scott Shane, “Expert Panel Is Critical of F.B.I. Work in Investigating Anthrax Letters,”
New York Times
, February 15, 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/16/us/16anthrax.html
(accessed October 17, 2011).

44
. Shane, “Panel on Anthrax Inquiry.”

45
. Ibid. Regarding Ivins's animosity toward the news media, the panel wrote that the
New York Post
, which was one of the targets of the anthrax letters, “represented [to Ivins] the media and New York City, [and] appeared to have been [a] symbolic stand-in…for broader targets.” See
Report of the Expert Behavioral Analysis Panel
, Gregory Saathoff, chairman, August 23, 2010, p. 9. The panel's report was not made public until March 2011.

46
. Simon, “Forgotten Terrorists,” p. 207.

47
. Beverly Gage,
The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in Its First Age of Terror
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 326.

48
. “Sixteen Individuals Arrested in the United States for Alleged Roles in Cyber Attacks,” Department of Justice, July 19, 2011,
http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2011/July/11-opa-944.html
, (accessed January 7, 2012).

49
. Jeffrey D. Simon, “The Alphabet Bomber,” in
Toxic Terror: Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical and Biological Weapons
, ed. Jonathan B. Tucker, BCSIA Studies in International Security (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), p. 86.

50
. Nassim Nicholas Taleb,
The Black Swan: The Impact of the Highly Improbable
(New York: Random House, 2007), pp. xvii–xviii.

51
. Taleb views the 9/11 attacks, which were committed by a terrorist group, al Qaeda, and not by a lone wolf, as a black-swan event, since they served as evidence that “some events, owing to their dynamics, stand largely outside the realm of the predictable” and were an example of the “built-in defect of conventional wisdom” (
Black Swan
, p. xxi). However, I do not view the 9/11 attacks as a black-swan event, since while they certainly had an extreme impact in the United States and elsewhere, it is questionable whether they were beyond our realm of normal expectations. There had been suicide terrorist attacks on the ground in Lebanon and elsewhere during the 1980s as well as a suicide attack at sea on the USS
Cole
in Yemen in 2000. It was therefore just a matter of time before terrorists escalated to suicide attacks from the air.

52
.
Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction
, p. 3.

53
.
Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction
, US Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-ISC-115 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, December 1993), p. 71.

54
. David A. Relman, “Bioterrorism—Preparing to Fight the Next War,”
New England Journal of Medicine
354, no. 2 (2006): 113–15; cited in Richard J. Danzig,
A Policymaker's Guide to Bioterrorism and What to Do about It
, Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, December 2009, p. 9.

55
. Danzig,
Policymaker's Guide
, pp. 9–10.

56
.
Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction
, pp. 2–3.

57
. Ibid., p. 3.

58
. “Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors,” World Nuclear Association, October 31, 2011,
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf06.html
(accessed November 28, 2011).

59
. Allison,
Nuclear Terrorism
, p. 46.

60
. Brian Michael Jenkins,
Will Terrorists Go Nuclear?
(Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2008), p. 372.

CHAPTER 4. WHERE ARE THE WOMEN?

1
. David C. Rapoport, “The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism,” in
Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy
, ed. Audrey Kurth Cronin and James M. Ludes (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004), p. 51.

2
. Amy Knight, “Female Terrorists in the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party,”
Russian Review
38, no. 2 (April 1979): 139.

3
. Ibid.

4
. Walter Laqueur,
The Age of Terrorism
(Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1987), p. 79.

5
. Knight, “Female Terrorists,” p. 139.

6
. Eileen MacDonald,
Shoot the Women First
(New York: Random House, 1991), p. 91.

7
. All the hostages from the other hijacked planes were also eventually released in exchange for Palestinian militants in prisons in Switzerland, West Germany, and Britain. Israel also released a number of Palestinian and Libyan prisoners after the hostages were freed but denied that this was part of any deal with the hijackers. All the planes (with the exception of one) had been diverted to Jordan, where, after taking the hostages and crew off the planes, the terrorists blew the planes up on the ground. They did the same thing in Cairo with the Pan Am jet that they hijacked and forced to land there. See Jeffrey D. Simon,
The Terrorist Trap: America's Experience with Terrorism
, 2nd ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 97–106.

8
. Ibid, pp. 110–19. Before surrendering in Paris, the hijackers cut up pieces of the fake clay bombs and gave them to the passengers as souvenirs!