Authors: Anne Applebaum
Iron Curtain (96 page)
32.
Ronald Hayman,
Brecht: A Biography
(New York, 1983), p. 367.
33.
Interview with Klaus Polkehn, Berlin, October 20, 2006.
34.
Interview with Rackow.
35.
Kramer, “Early Post-Stalin Succession Struggles,” part 2, p. 5.
36.
Ostermann, ed.,
Uprising in East Germany 1953
, pp. 186, 270; Koop,
Der
17
.
Juni
1953
, pp. 333–34. There is no Western evidence for this thesis either: the CIA was just as surprised by the riots as the Russians, and even thought the Russians might have provoked them (Ostermann, ed.,
Uprising in East Germany 1953
, pp. 210–12).
37.
Kramer, “Early Post-Stalin Succession Struggles.”
38.
Gati,
Failed Illusions
, pp. 54–55.
39.
SAPMO-BA, DY 30/IV 2/1/120, pp. 2–13.
40.
Ibid., pp. 25–28.
41.
Ibid.
42.
Paweł Machewicz, “Polish Regime Countermeasures Against Radio Free Europe,” in A. Ross Johnson and R. Eugene Parta, eds.,
Cold War Broadcasting: Impact on the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
(New York, 2010), pp. 174–75.
43.
Andrzej Friskze,
Polska: Losy państwa i narodu,
1939
–
1989
(Warsaw, 2003). See also Andrzej Paczkowski,
Trzy twarze Józefa Światły: przyczynek do historii komunizmu w Polsce
(Warsaw, 2009).
44.
Gati,
Failed Illusions
, pp. 55, 113–22.
45.
Andrzej Krzywicki,
Poststalinowski Karnawał Radości
(Warsaw, 2009), pp. 185–90.
46.
Rzeczpospolita
, December 4, 2007.
47.
Krzywicki,
Poststalinowski Karnawał Radości
, p. 231.
48.
Jacek Kuroń,
Wiara i wina. Do i od komunizmu
(Wrocław, 1995), p. 56.
49.
Interview with Jacek Fedorowicz, Warsaw, March 25, 2009.
50.
Krzywicki,
Poststalinowski Karnawał Radości
, p. 231.
51.
Interview with Krzystof Pomian, Warsaw, May 2, 2008.
52.
Krzywicki,
Poststalinowski Karnawał Radości
, p. 281.
53.
K. Kozniewski, “Sto Wierszy o Festiwalu,”
Sztandar Młodych
(August 9, 1955).
54.
Interview with Fedorowicz.
55.
William Griffiths, “The Petőfi Circle: Forum for Ferment in the Hungarian Thaw,”
The Hungarian Quarterly
2, 1 (January 1962), pp. 15–31.
56.
István Eörsi, “The Petőfi Circle,” in
Intellectuele kringen in de twintigst eeuw
(Utrecht, 1995), p. 110.
57.
Tamás Aczél and Tibor Meráy,
The Revolt of the Mind
(London, 1960), pp. 274–82; also Békés, Byrne, and Ranier, eds.,
The
1956 Hungarian
Revolution
, p. 10.
58.
Ibid., pp. 345–46.
59.
Aczél and Meráy,
Revolt of the Mind
, p. 45.
60.
Ibid., pp. 96–113.
61.
Iván Vitány,
Önarckép—elvi keretben
(Celldömölk, 2007), pp. 28–32.
62.
András Hegedüs, “The Petőfi Circle: The Forum of Reform in 1956,”
Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics
113, 2, pp. 108–22.
63.
Békés, Byrne, and Ranier, eds.,
The
1956 Hungarian
Revolution
, p. 10.
64.
Aczél and Meráy,
Revolt of the Mind
, pp. 267–68.
65.
Eörsi, “The Petőfi Circle,” p. 108.
66.
Interview with Karol Modzelewski, Warsaw, April 28, 2009.
67.
Ibid.
68.
Eörsi, “The Petöfi Circle,” p. 110.
69.
Mark Pittaway, “The Reproduction of Hierarchy: Skill, Working-Class Culture, and the State in Early Socialist Hungary,”
The Journal of Modern History
74, 4 (December 2002), p. 728.
70.
Griffiths, “The Petőfi Circle,” p. 22.
71.
The speech is available at
http://www.marxists.org/archive/khrushchev/1956/02/24.htm
.
72.
William Taubman,
Khrushchev: The Man and His Era
(New York, 2003), p. 284.
73.
Interview with Colonel Ludwik Rokicki, Warsaw, May 25, 2006.
74.
Griffiths, “The Petőfi Circle,” p. 17.
75.
Victor Sebestyen,
Twelve Days: Revolution
1956
(London, 2006), pp. 86–87.
76.
Much later, Rákosi’s ashes were brought back to Hungary and reburied in a Budapest cemetery. But after his tombstone became a favorite target for vandals, they were moved to a grave marked only with his initials. See
http://www.mult-kor.hu/cikk.php?id=8036&pIdx=4
.
77.
Gati,
Failed Illusions
, pp. 137–38.
78.
Recent accounts that make good use of archives include Gati,
Failed Illusions
, and Sebestyen,
Twelve Days
, as well as Mark Kramer’s groundbreaking essay “The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and New Findings,”
Journal of Contemporary History
33, 2 (April 1998), pp. 163–214. The Central European Press in collaboration with the 1956 Institute had published an excellent document collection,
The
1956
Hungarian Revolution
, edited by Csaba Békés, Malcolm Byrne, and János Rainer. Older eyewitness accounts published in English include George Urban,
Nineteen Days: A Broadcaster’s Account of the Hungarian Revolution
(London, 1957); Sándor Kopácsi,
In the Name of the Working Class
(New York, 1987); Endre Márton,
The Forbidden Sky
(New York, 1971); and Tibor Meráy,
Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin
(London, 1959).
79.
Aczél and Meráy,
Revolt of the Mind
, pp. 437–38.
80.
Sebestyen,
Twelve Days
, p. 97.
81.
Meráy,
Thirteen Days That Shook the Kremlin
, p. 439.
82.
Kramer, “The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” pp. 163–214.
83.
Békés, Byrne, and Ranier, eds.,
The
1956 Hungarian
Revolution
, p. 223; Kramer, “The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” pp. 169–71.
84.
Kramer, “The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises,” p. 172.
85.
Urban,
Nineteen Days
, pp. 12–13.
86.
Békés, Byrne, and Ranier, eds.,
The
1956 Hungarian
Revolution
, pp. 188–89.
87.
Sebestyen,
Twelve Days
, pp. 110–19.
88.
Ibid., p. 192.
89.
Gati,
Failed Illusions
, pp. 165–67.
90.
Sebestyen,
Twelve Days
, p. 208.
91.
See Bill Lomax, ed.,
Hungarian Workers’ Councils in
1956
(New York, 1990).
92.
Békés, Byrne, and Ranier, eds.,
The
1956 Hungarian
Revolution
, p. 375.
93.
Sebestyen,
Twelve Days
, p. 281.
94.
Ibid., pp. 299–300.
95.
Békés, Byrne, and Ranier, eds.,
The
1956 Hungarian
Revolution
, p. 70.
1.
Henryk Domański, “The Middle Class in Transition from Communist to Capitalist Society,” in Edmund Mokrzycki and Sven Eliæson, eds.,
Building Democracy and Civil Society East of the Elbe
(New York, 2006), p. 95.
2.
Conversation with Roger Scruton, June 6, 2012; also see Barbara Day,
The Velvet Philosophers
(London, 1999).
3.
Vaclav Havel et al.,
The Power of the Powerless: Citizens Against the State in Central-Eastern Europe
(London, 1985), p. 39.
4.
This saying has long been in use in France, where it is sometimes attributed incorrectly to Robespierre or Napoleon. The Russian equivalent, which Stalin did apparently use, is “When wood is chopped, woodchips will fly” (
Les rubyat—schepki letyat
). Richard Pipes has observed that this phrase, often used by apologists for communism, is nonsensical: “Apart from the fact that human beings are not eggs, the trouble is that no omelette has emerged from the slaughter.”
5.
See Kanan Makiya,
Republic of Fear
(Berkeley, 1998); John K. Cooley, “The Libyan Menace,”
Foreign Policy
42 (Spring 1981); and Gareth Winrow,
The Foreign Policy of the GDR in Africa
(Cambridge, 1990), p. 140. East Germany also helped create the secret police forces of a number of African communist regimes, including those of Ethiopia, Angola, and Mozambique.
6.
Available at
http://www.lkplodz.pl/
.
7.
See, for example, this analysis of the alterations back and forth to Russian nongovernmental organization law, available at
http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/russia.html
.
A partial list of memoirs, fiction, monographs, and other secondary literature used in the writing of
Iron Curtain
follows. Articles, papers, and other materials are listed in the reference notes along with specific archival references.
Abrams, Bradley,
The Struggle for the Soul of the Nation: Czech Culture and the Rise of Communism
(New York, 2004).
Acheson, Dean,
Present at the Creation
(New York, 1987).
Aczel, Tamás, and Tibor Meráy,
The Revolt of the Mind: A Case History of Intellectual Resistance behind the Iron Curtain
(London, 1960).
Agee, Joel,
Twelve Years: An American Boyhood in East Germany
(Chicago, 2000).
Allinson, Mark,
Politics and Popular Opinion in East Germany, 1945–68
(Manchester, 2000).
Åman, Anders,
Architecture and Ideology in Eastern Europe during the Stalin Era
, trans. Roger and Kerstin Tanner (Cambridge, Mass., 1992).
Andreas-Friedrich, Ruth,
Battleground Berlin: Diaries 1945–48
, trans. Anna Boerresen (New York, 1990).
Anonymous,
A Woman in Berlin,
trans. Philip Boehm (London, 2006).
Ansorg, Leonore,
Kinder im Klassenkampf: Die Geschichte der Pionierorganisation von 1948 bis Ende der fünfziger Jahre
(Berlin, 1997).
Apor, Balázs, et al., eds.,
The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships
(New York, 2004).
Arendt, Hannah,
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(Cleveland and New York, 1958).
Arp, Agnes,
VEB
Vaters ehemaliger Betrieb Privatunternehmer in der
DDR
(Leipzig, 2005).
Åslund, Anders,
Private Enterprise in Eastern Europe
(Macmillan, 1985).
Baczoni, Gábor,
Pár(t)viadal—A Magyar Államrendőrség Vidéki Főkapitányságának Politikai Rendészeti osztálya, 1945–1946
(Budapest, 2002).
Baer, Helmut David,
The Struggle of Hungarian Lutherans under Communism
(College Station, Texas, 2006).
Bajer, Magdalena,
Blizny po Ukąszeniu
(Warsaw, 2005).
Balogh, Gyöngyi, Vera Gyürey, and Pál Honffy,
A magyar játékfilm története a kezdetektől 1990 -ig
(Budapest, 2004).
Balogh, Margit,
A
KALOT
es a katolikus tarsadalompolitika 1935–1946
(Budapest, 1998).
———,
Mindszenty József (1892–1975)
(Budapest, 2002).
Balogh, Margit, and Csaba Szabó,
A Gr
ő
sz per
(Budapest, 2002).
Bank, Barbara, and Sándor Őze,
A ‘német ügy’ 1945–1953. A Volksbundtól Tiszalökig
(Budapest and Munich, 2005).
Barany, Zoltan D.,
Soldiers and Politics in Eastern Europe, 1945–1990
(New York, 1993).
Baring, Arnulf,
Uprising in East Germany: June 1, 1953
(London, 1972).
Beevor, Antony,
Berlin: The Downfall, 1945
(London, 2002).
Beevor, Antony, and Luba Vinogradova, eds.,
A Writer at War: Vasily Grossman with the Red Army, 1941–1945
(London, 2005).
Beke, László,
A Student’s Diary: Budapest, October 1–November 1, 1956
, trans. Leon Kossar and Ralph M. Zoltan (New York, 1957).
Belényi, Gyula,
Az állam szorításában. Az ipari munkásság társadalmi átalakulása 1945–1965
(Budapest, 2009).
Berend, Iván T.,
Central and Eastern Europe 1944–1993
(Cambridge, 1996).
Berend, Iván T., and Tamás Csató,
Evolution of the Hungarian Economy, 1848–1948
(Boulder, 2001).
Berényi, Zsuzsanna Ágnes,
A szabadkőművesség kézikönyve
(Budapest, 2001).
Beres, Witold, and Jerzy Skoczyłas,
General Kiszczak Mowi … Prawie Wszytko
(Warsaw, 1991).
Biddiscombe, Alexander P.,
Werwolf: The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944–46
(Toronto, 1998).
Biedrzycka, Anna (ed.),
Nowa Huta—architektura i twórcy miasta idealnego
, exhibition catalogue (Kraków, 2006).
Bierut, Bolesław,
Sześcoletni Plan Odbudowy Warszawy
(Warsaw, 1950).
———,
Sześcoletni Plan Odbudowy Warszawy: Refereat Na Konferencji Warszawskiej
PZPR
w dniu 3 lipca, 1949 g
(Warsaw, 1949).
Bikont, Anna, and Joanna Szczęsna,
Lawina i Kamienie: Pisarze wobec Komunizmu
(Warsaw, 2006).
Błazynski, Zbigniew,
Mówi Józef
Światło
(Warsaw, 2003).
Boórm, János,
Arcok és értékek az acélvárosban
(Budapest, 2008).
Borhi, László,
Hungary in the Cold War: 1945–1956
(Budapest and New York, 2004).
Böszörményi, Géza,
Recsk 1950–1953
(Budapest, 2006).
Bouška, Tomáš, and Klara Pinerova,
Czechoslovak Political Prisoners
(Prague, 2009).
Breuning, Eleonore, Jill Lewis, and Gareth Pritchard, eds.,
Power and the People: A Social History of Central European Politics, 1945–1956
(Manchester, 2005).
Brodala, Marta, Anna Lisiecka, and Tadeusz Rudzikowski,
Przebudować
Człowieka: komunistyczne wysiłki zmiany mentalności
(Warsaw, 2001).
Bruce, Gary,
The Firm: The Inside Story of the Stasi
(Oxford, 2010).
Brüning, Elfriede,
Und außerdem war es mein Leben
(Berlin, 1952).
Brzezinski, Zbigniew,
The Soviet Bloc: Unity and Conflict
(New York, 1967).
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, and Carl J. Friedrich,
Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy
(Cambridge, 1956).
Brzostek, Błażej,
Robotnicy Warszawy
(Warsaw, 2002).
Buber-Neumann, Margarete,
Under Two Dictators
, trans. Edward Fitzgerald (London, 2008).
Burger, Ulrich,
Das sagen wir natürlich so nicht!
(Berlin, 1990).
Celina, Budzyńska,
Krytyka i Samokrytyka
(Warsaw, 1954).
Childs, David,
The
GDR:
Moscow’s German Ally
(London, 1988).
Childs, David, and Richard Popplewell,
The Stasi: The East German Intelligence and Security Services
(New York, 1996).
Chłopek, Maciej,
Bikiniarze. Pierwsza polska subkultura
(Warsaw, 2005).
Chodakiewicz, Marek,
After the Holocaust
(New York, 2003).
Chodakiewicz, Marek, John Radziłowski, and Dariusz Tolczyk, eds.,
Poland’s Transformation: A Work in Progress
(Charlottesville, 2003).
Cichocki, Bartosz, and Krzyzstof Józwiak,
Najważniejsze są
Kadry: Centralna Szkoła Partyjna
PPR
/
PZPR
(Warsaw, 2006).
Cichopek-Gajraj, Anna, “Jews, Poles and Slovaks: A Story of Encounters, 1944–1948,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 2008.
Colditz, Heinz, and Martin Lücke,
Stalinstadt: neues Leben, neue Menschen
(Berlin, 1958).
Connelly, John,
Captive University: The Sovietization of East German, Czech, and Polish Higher Education, 1945–1956
(Chapel Hill and London, 2000).
Conquest, Robert,
Reflections on a Ravaged Century
(New York, 1999).
Conze, Werner, and Jakob Kaiser,
Politiker zwischen Ost und West, 1945–1949
(Stuttgart, 1969).
Courtois, Stéphane, et al., eds.,
The Black Book of Communism
(Cambridge, 1999).
Crampton, R. J.,
A Concise History of Bulgaria
(Cambridge, 2006).
Creuzberger, Stefan,
Die Sowjetische Militäradministration in Deutschland (SMAD)
1945–1949
(Melle, 1991).
Crowley, David,
Warsaw
(London, 2003).
Czuchnowski, Wojciech,
Blizna. Proces Kurii krakowskiej 1953
(Kraków, 2003).
Davies, Norman,
Rising ’44: The Battle for Warsaw
(New York, 2004).
Davies, Norman, and Roger Moorhouse,
Microcosm: A Portrait of a European City
(New York, 2003).
Deák, István, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt, eds.,
The Politics of Retribution in Europe
(Princeton, 2000).
Deakin, Frederick W., and Richard Storry,
The Case of Richard Sorge
(New York, 1966).
Djilas, Milovan,
Conversations with Stalin
(New York, 1990).
Doernberg, Stefan,
Befreiung. Ein Augenzeugbericht
(East Berlin, 1985).
———,
Die Geburt eines neuen Deutschland 1945–1949
(East Berlin, 1959).
———,
Kurze Geschichte der
DDR
(Berlin, 1969).
Dönhoff, Marion Gräfin,
Namen, die keiner mehr nennt: Ostpreußen—Menschen und Geschichte
(Munich, 1964).
Drauschke, Frank, Arseny Roginsky, and Anna Kaminsky,
Erschossen in Moskau … : Die deutschen Opfer des Stalinismus auf dem Moskauer Friedhof Donskoje
(Berlin, 2008).
Eichner, Klaus, and Gotthold Schramm,
Angriff und Abwehr: Die deutschen Geheimdienste nach 1945
(Berlin, 2007).
Engelgard, Jan,
Wielka Gra Bolesława Piaseckiego
(Warsaw, 2008).
Epstein, Catherine,
The Last Revolutionaries: German Communists and Their Century
(Cambridge and London, 2003).
Erdős, Ferenc, and Zszuanna Pongrácz,
Dunaújváros története
(Dunaújváros, 2000).
Erős, Ferenc,
Pszichoanalízis és kulturális emlékezet
(Budapest, 2010).
Faludy, György,
My Happy Days in Hell
(London, 2010).
Farkas, Vladimir,
Nincs mentség
(Budapest, 1990).
Fedorowicz, Jacek,
Dziełka wybrane
(Chicago, 1989).
———,
Kultura młodych–Teatry studenckie w połowie lat pięćdziesiątych
, maszynopis, s.l., s.a (tekst wygłoszony podczas konferencji naukowej na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim).
Fehér, István,
Az utolsó percben, Magyarország nemzetiségei 1945–1990
(Budapest, 1993).
Feist, Günter (with Eckhart Gillen),
Stationen eines Weges: Daten und Zitate zur Kunst und Kunstpolitik der
DDR
1945–1998
(Berlin, 1988).
Feist, Günter, Eckhart Gillen, and Beatrice Vierneisel, eds.,
Kunstdokumentation: 1945–1990,
SBZ
/
DDR
(Berlin, 1996).
Fidelis, Małgorzata, “The New Proletarians: Women Industrial Workers and the State in Postwar Poland, 1945–57,” Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 2005.
Finkel, Stuart,
On the Ideological Front: The Russian Intelligentsia and the Making of the Soviet Public Sphere
(New Haven, 2007).
Finn, Gerhard,
Die politischen Häftlinge der Sowjetzone: 1945–1959
(Pfaffenhofen, 1960).
Fischer, Ruth,
Stalin and German Communism: A Study in the Origins of the State Party
(New Brunswick, 1982).
Fitzpatrick, Sheila, and Michael Geyer,
Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared
(Cambridge, 2008).
Földesi, Margit,
A megszállók szabadsága
(Budapest, 2002).
Frazik, Wojciech, Filip Musiał, and Mateusz Szpytma,
Obsada Stanowisk kierowniczych Urzędu Bezpieceństwa i Służby Bezpieczenstwa w Krakowie
(Kraków, 2006).
Friske, Andrzej,
Opozycja Polityczna w
PRL
,
1945–1980
(London, 1994).
———,
Polska: Losy państwa i narodu, 1939–1945
(Warsaw, 2003).
Fulbrook, Mary,
Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the
GDR
,
1949–1989
(Oxford, 1995).
Furet, François,
The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century,
trans. Deborah Furet (Chicago, 1999).
Gaddis, John Lewis,
The Cold War: A New History
(New York, 2005).
———,
We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History
(Oxford, 1997).
Gál, Lajos, ed.,
Egységbe ifjúság!
(Budapest, 1973).
Garasin, Rudolf,
Vörössipkás lovagok
(Budapest, 1967).
Garlicki, Andrzej,
Bolesław Bierut
(Warsaw, 1994).
Gaszyński, Marek,
Fruwa Twoja Marynara: lata czterdzieste i pięćdziesiąte—jazz, dancing, rock and roll
(Warsaw, 2006).
Gati, Charles,
Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt
(Stanford and Washington, 2006).
Gawryszewski, Andrzej,
Ludność
Polski w
XX
wieku
(Warsaw, 2005).
Gergely, Ferenc,
A magyar cserkészet története 1910–1948
(Budapest, 1989).
Gergely, Jenő,
A katolikus egyház Magyarországon 1944–1971
(Budapest, 1985).
Germuska, Pál, “Between Theory and Practice: Planning Socialist Cities in Hungary,” in
Urban Machinery: Inside Modern European Cities
, eds. Mikael Hard and Thomas J. Misa (Cambridge, Mass., 2008).
Geyer, Hans-Joachim,
Am Anfang stand das Ende
(Berlin, 1954).
Gieseke, Jens,
Die
DDR
-Staatssicherheit: Schild und Schwert der Partei
(Bonn, 2000).
———,
The
GDR
State Security: Sword and Shield,
trans. Mary Carlene Forszt (Berlin, 2004).
Gilbert, Martin, “Churchill and Poland,” unpublished lecture delivered at the University of Warsaw, February 16, 2010.
Gillen, Eckhart,
Das Kunstkombinat
DDR
.
Zäsuren einer gescheiterten Kunstpolitik
(Köln, 2005).
Gillen, Eckhart, and Diether Schmidt,
Zone 5: Kunst in der Viersektorenstadt 1945–1951
(Berlin 1989).
Gleason, Abott,
Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War
(Oxford, 1995).
Gneist, Gisela, and Gunther Heydemann, “
Allenfalls kommt man für ein halbes Jahr in ein Umschulungslage”
(Leipzig, 2002).
Goban-Klas, Tomasz,
The Orchestration of the Media: The Politics of Mass Communications in Communist Poland and the Aftermath
(Boulder, 1994).
Golaszewski, Tadeusz,
Kronika Nowej Huty
(Kraków, 1955).
Gontarczyk, Piotr,
Polska Partia Robotnicza: Droga do Wladzy, 1941–1944
(Warsaw, 2003).