Authors: Anne Applebaum
61.
Stola,
Kraj Bez Wyjścia?
, p. 50.
62.
Marek Chodakiewicz,
After the Holocaust
(New York, 2003), pp. 187–99.
63.
Jan Gross, in
Fear: Anti-Semitism in Poland After Auschwitz
(New York, 2006), writes that for racially motivated murders of Jews between 1944 and 1946, 1,500 is the “widely accepted” estimate; Marek Chodakiewicz, at the other end of the historiological spectrum, cites in
After the Holocaust
(pp. 207–16) a lower figure of 400 to 700. Other scholars go as high as 2,500.
64.
Chodakiewicz,
After the Holocaust
, p. 172; János Pelle,
Az utolsó vérvádak
(Budapest, 1995), pp. 125–49.
65.
This is a very simplified version of events. For more detail, see Gross,
Fear
, pp. 11–129; and Bo˙zena Szaynok,
Pogrom
˙Zydów w Kielcach.
4.
VII
1946
r.
(Warsaw, 1992). The remaining disputes about what actually happened are well summarized in Bo˙zena Szaynok, “Spory o pogrom Kielecki,” in Łukasz Kaminski and Jan ˙Zaryn, eds.,
Wokol Pogromu Kieleckiego
, (Warsaw, 2006).
66.
Shimon Redlich,
Life in Transit: Jews in Postwar Lodz,
1945
–
1950
(Boston, 2010), p. 82.
67.
Robert Győri Szabó,
A kommunizmus és a zsidóság az
1945
utáni Magyarországon
(Budapest, 2009), p. 147.
68.
Martin Mevius,
Agents of Moscow: The Hungarian Communist Party and the Origins of Socialist Patriotism
1941
–
1953
(Oxford, 2005), pp. 94–98.
69.
For two recent accounts, see Szabó,
A kommunizmus és a zsidóság az
1945
utáni Magyarországon
; and Pelle,
Az utolsó vérvádak
. In English, Peter Kenez summarizes the events briefly in
Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets: The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary,
1944
–
1948
(New York, 2006), pp. 160–62.
70.
As Chodakiewicz writes in
After the Holocaust
, “currently available materials have neither confirmed nor denied the possibility that the pogroms were instigated by the secret police” (pp. 171–72).
71.
Anita J. Pra˙zmowska, “The Kielce Pogrom, 1946, and the Emergence of Communist Power in Poland,”
Cold War History
2, 2 (January 2002), pp. 101–24.
72.
Szabó,
A kommunizmus és a zsidóság az
1945
utáni Magyarországon
, p. 147.
73.
Gross,
Fear
, p. 39.
74.
Heda Kovály,
Under a Cruel Star: A Life in Prague,
1941
–
1968
(Cambridge, Mass., 1986), p. 47.
75.
Raphael Patai,
The Jews of Hungary: History, Culture, Psychology
(Detroit, 1996), p. 627.
76.
Stola, Aleksiun, and Polak, “Wszyscy krawcy wyjechali,” pp. 11–12. Stola also credits Michael Steinlauf’s
Bondage to the Dead: Poland and the Memory of the Holocaust
(Syracuse, 1997) and R. J. Lifton’s
The Broken Connection: On Death and the Continuity of Life
(New York, 1979) in his review of Gross’s
Fear
in
The English Historical Review
122, 499 (2007), pp. 1,460–63.
77.
Described in Anna Cichopek-Gajraj, “Jews, Poles, and Slovaks: A Story of Encounters, 1944–48,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 2008, p. 230.
78.
Gross,
Fear
, pp. 130–31.
79.
Stola,
Kraj Bez Wyjścia?
, pp. 50–52.
80.
Ibid., pp. 53–63.
81.
Patai,
Jews of Hungary
, p. 614.
82.
Bo˙zena Szaynok,
Poland–Israel
1944–1968: In the Shadow of the Past and of the Soviet Union
(Warsaw, 2012), pp. 110–13; also Szabó,
A kommunizmus és a zsidóság az
1945
utáni Magyarországon
, pp. 75–88.
83.
Stola,
Kraj Bez Wyjścia?
, pp. 53–63.
84.
Ibid., p. 481.
85.
Andrzej Paczkowski, “Zydzi w UB: Proba weryfikacji stereotyp,” in Tomasz Szarota, ed.,
Komunizm: Ideologia, System, Ludzi
(Warsaw, 2001).
86.
Quoted in Gross,
Fear
, p. 224.
87.
HIA, Jakub Berman Collection, folder 1:4.
88.
Mevius,
Agents of Moscow
, pp. 94–98.
89.
Szabó,
A kommunizmus és a zsidóság az
1945
utáni Magyarországon
, p. 91.
90.
Herf,
Divided Memory
, p. 83.
91.
Mevius,
Agents of Moscow
, p. 184.
92.
Marcin Zaremba,
Komunizm, Legitimizacja, Nacjonalizm
(Warsaw, 2005), p. 140.
93.
T. V. Volokitina et al., eds.,
Vostochnaya Evropa v dokumentakh rossiskikh arkhivov
1944
–
1953,
vol. I (Moscow and Novosibirsk, 1997), pp. 937–43. In 1968, Gomułka did actually purge many of the remaining Jews from the Polish communist party and expelled many of them from the country.
1.
Wolfgang Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, trans. C. M. Woodhouse (Chicago, 1958), p. 408.
2.
HIA, Stefan J˛edrychowski Collection, Box 4, folder 18.
3.
AAN, Ministerstwo Oswiaty/686, pp. 1–2.
4.
Robert Service,
Spies and Commissars
(London, 2011), p. 232.
5.
Leopold Tyrmand,
Dziennik
1954
(London, 1980), pp. 47–49.
6.
Marek Gaszyński,
Fruwa Twoja Marynara
(Warsaw, 2009), pp. 12–14.
7.
Tyrmand,
Dziennik
1954
, pp. 47–49.
8.
There are some who dislike the notion. The eminent Russia scholar Stephen Kotkin says the expression “civil society” is “catnip to scholars, pundits and foreign aid donors … a vague, seemingly all-purpose collective social actor.” Though in writing about Central Europe he needs to describe the phenomenon anyway, and thus uses another term (“niches”) for the same thing. See Anne Applebaum, “1989 and All That,”
Slate
, November 9, 2009.
9.
V. I. Lenin, quoted in
The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks) Is the Leading and Guiding Force of Soviet Society
(Moscow, 1951), p. 28.
10.
Dmitri Likachev, “Arrest,” in Anne Applebaum, ed.,
Gulag Voices
(New Haven, 2010), pp. 1–12.
11.
Stuart Finkel,
On the Ideological Front: The Russian Intelligentsia and the Making of the Soviet Public Sphere
(New Haven, 2007), pp. 1–13.
12.
Ellen Ueberschär,
Junge Gemeinde im Konflikt: Evangelische Jugendarbeit in
SBZ
und
DDR
1945
–
1961
(Stuttgart, 2003), p. 62.
13.
Alan Nothnagle,
Building the East Germany Myth
(Ann Arbor, 1999), pp. 103–4.
14.
An excellent account of the Lysenko versus Darwin debate in the USSR can be found in Peter Pringle,
The Murder of Nikolai Vavilov
(New York, 2008).
15.
Ulrich Mählert,
Die Freie Deutsche Jugend
1945
–
1949
(Paderborn, 1995), pp. 22–45.
16.
Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, pp. 299–300.
17.
Mählert,
Freie Deutsche Jugend
, pp. 44–45.
18.
Leonhard,
Child of the Revolution
, pp. 318–26.
19.
DRA, F201-00-00/0004 (Büro des Intendanten Geschäftsunterlagen, 1945–1950), pp. 284–87.
20.
Mählert,
Freie Deutsche Jugend
, pp. 72–73.
21.
Stewart Thomson, in collaboration with Robert Bialek,
The Bialek Affair
(London, 1955), pp. 68–69.
22.
Intervew with Ernst Benda, Berlin, May 20, 2008.
23.
Manfred Klein,
Jugend zwischen den Diktaturen:
1945
–
1956
(Mainz, 1968), pp. 20–35.
24.
Thomson with Bialek,
Bialek Affair
, pp. 76–78.
25.
Klein,
Jugend zwischen den Diktaturen
, p. 34.
26.
SAPMO-BA, DY24/2000, p. 13.
27.
Ibid., p. 164.
28.
Mählert,
Freie Deutsche Jugend
, pp. 114–17; SAPMO-BA, DY24/2000, pp. 36–41.
29.
Klein,
Jugend zwischen den Diktaturen
, p. 67.
30.
Ueberschär,
Junge Gemeinde im Konflikt
, p. 65.
31.
Klein,
Jugend zwischen den Diktaturen
, pp. 73–74.
32.
V. V. Zakharov,
SVAG
I Religioznie Konfesii Sovetskoi Zoni Okkupatsii Germanii,
1945
–
1949: Sbornik Dokumentov
, pp. 244–47.
33.
Ibid., pp. 248–49.
34.
DRA, F201-00-00/0004 (Büro des Intendanten Geschäftsunterlagen, 1945–1950), pp. 284–87.
35.
Szabad Nép
, June 19, 1946.
36.
Ibid., June 20, 1946.
37.
Ibid., June 22, 1946.
38.
Ibid., June 23, 1946.
39.
Ferenc Nagy,
Küzdelem a vassfüggöny mögött
(Budapest, 1990), pp. 314–16.
40.
Imre Kovács,
Magyarország megszállása
(Budapest, 1990), p. 294; József Mindszenty,
Emlékirataim
(Budapest, 1989), p. 134; Margit Balogh,
A Kalot
és a katolikus társadalompolitika
1935
–
1946
(Budapest, 1998), pp. 198–201.
41.
Peter Kenez describes it as “nationalist” and “anti-Semitic” in
Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets: The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary,
1944
–
1948
(New York, 2006), p. 165.
42.
Balogh,
A
Kalot
és a katolikus társadalompolitika
, p. 166.
43.
PIL, 286/31, pp. 7–11.
44.
Ibid.
45.
Ibid.
46.
Ibid., pp. 13–15.
47.
Ibid., p. 172.
48.
Balogh,
A Kalot
és a katolikus társadalompolitika
, p. 167.
49.
Ibid., pp. 174–75.
50.
Ibid., pp. 180–83.
51.
Kenez,
Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets
, p. 279.
52.
Szabad Nép
: July 16, 1946, p. 3; July 18, 1946, p. 1; July 19, 1946, p. 1; July 20, 1946, p. 3; July 24, 1946, p. 3. See also László Borhi,
Hungary in the Cold War, 1945–1956: Between the United States and the Soviet Union
(New York and Budapest, 2004), pp. 94–95; Kenez,
Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets
, pp. 279–80.
53.
Balogh,
A Kalot
és a katolikus társadalompolitika
, pp. 206–9.
54.
Henryk Saint Glass,
Harcerstwo jako czynnik odrodzenia Narodowego
(Warsaw and Plock, 1924), pp. 15–18.
55.
Norman Davies,
Rising ’44: The Battle for Warsaw
(New York, 2004), pp. 177–78 and 496; also Julian Kwiek,
Zwi˛azek Harcerstwa Polskiego w Latach
1944–1950. Powstanie, rozwój, likwidacja
(Toruń, 1995), pp. 5–6.
56.
Karta, Memoir Archives, Bronisław Mazurek, I/531.
57.
M. Kowalik,
Harcerstwo w Stalowej Woli
1938–1981. Zapiski kronikarskie
(Warsaw, 1981).
58.
Karta, Memoir Archives, Janusz Zawisza-Hrybacz, II/1730.
59.
Interview with Maria Straszewska, Warsaw, May 26, 2008.
60.
Kwiek,
Zwi˛azek Harcerstwa Polskiego w Latach
, pp. 8–12.
61.
Ludwik Stanisław Szuba,
Harcerstwo na Pomorzu i Kujawach w Latach
1945
–
1950
(Bydgoszcz, 2006), p. 35.
62.
Kwiek,
Zwi˛azek Harcerstwa Polskiego w Latach
, p. 47.
63.
Ibid., pp. 66–67.
64.
Interview with Julia Tazbirowa, Warsaw, May 20, 2009.
65.
K. Persak,
Odrodzenia harcerstwo w
1956
roku
(Warsaw, 1996), pp. 60–62; Kwiek,
Zwi˛azek Harcerstwa Polskiego w Latach
, p. 123.
66.
Interview with Straszewska.
67.
An “underground” Scouting movement was founded in the late 1950s. It remained in place until 1989.
68.
AAN, Ministerstwo Oswiaty, 592.
69.
Jan ˙Zaryn,
Dzieje Kosciola Katolickiego w Polsce,
1944
–
1989
(Warsaw, 2003), pp. 119–20.
70.
Ferenc Pataki,
A Nékosz-legenda
(Budapest, 2005), pp. 179–97.
71.
PIL, 302 1/15, p. 11.
72.
Also titled, in English,
The Confrontation
(
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0062995/
).
73.
Interview with Iván Vitanyi, Budapest, January 28, 2006.
74.
PIL. 320/1/16, pp. 162–77.
75.
Tibor Huszar, “From Elites to Nomenklatura: The Evolution and Some Characteristics of Institutionalised Cadre Policy in Hungary (1945–1989),”
Review of Sociology
11, 2 (2005), pp. 5–73.
76.
Pataki,
A Nékosz-legenda
, pp. 173–75; and Istvan Papp, “A Nékosz legendája és valósága,” in
Mítoszok, legendák, tévhitek a
20. századi magyar történelemről
(Budapest, 2005), pp. 309–38.
77.
Dini Metro-Roland, “The Recollections of a Movement: Memory and History of the National Organization of People’s Colleges,”
Hungarian Studies
15, 1 (2001), p. 84.