Divided we Fail (40 page)

“The Development of an Afrocentric Lifestyle Ministry” (Cosby), 127

discrimination.
See
racial discrimination

Dismantling Desegregation
(Orfield), 169

“Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” (Du Bois), 49

Dole, Bob, 156

Dorf, Michael, 181

Douglas, Robert: activism of, 22, 23, 27, 70, 108, 132, 137, 163, 168, 187; early years of, 20–21, 108; monitoring of assignment plans and, 130; Sandra Hampton and, 138; as SAVE founder, 146; on school desegregation, 153

Douglas, Vernon, 83

dropout rates, 102, 114

Du Bois, W. E. B., 42, 49, 96, 147–48, 197

Duncan, Arne, 198

Edmonson, Rachelle, 93

education reform, xii, 101, 104–5, 195–96

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 46, 54–55

Eisenhower Elementary School, 14

“Equality of Educational Opportunity”
(Coleman Report), 77–78, 86

equal protection clause, ix, 144–45, 149, 152–53, 169

expectations.
See
accountability and outcomes

Fairdale, Kentucky, 4, 5–7, 97

Fairdale High School, 15, 93, 160, 162, 164, 192

Fair Housing Act of 1968, 97

Farrakhan, Louis, 25–26

Federal Housing Administration, 63, 64

Fenderson, Harold, 11, 132, 137–38, 167–68, 179–81, 187

Fern Creek High School, 18, 97, 111, 142–43, 221n1

Florence, Alabama, 39

Ford, Gerald, 90

Fourteenth Amendment, U.S. Constitution, ix, 144–45, 149, 152–53, 169

Freedom School, 188

functional illiteracy, 104

Garvey, Marcus, 26, 37, 69, 85–86, 96

gender integration, 52

gerrymandering school zones, 86

gifted and talented programs: absence of, 6; black students and, 166, 169, 191; racial disparity in, 24, 166, 169, 191; racial guideline exemption of, 15; traditional schools and, 174; white students and, 102, 114.
See also
Advance Program tracks

Ginsberg, Ruth Bader, 184–85

Goodwin, Beverly, 6–7

Gordon, James: busing plan of, 89, 94, 95, 110; early years of, 87; personality of, 87–88; school desegregation cases and, 88, 89, 90, 94

Gordon, Teddy B.: appearance of, 136; early years of, 135, 136–37; Harold Fenderson case and, 180–81; first
Hampton
case and, 135–39, 143–44, 145–49, 150–51, 152–54, 158, 159; McFarland case and, 173–76, 177–78, 181–82;
Meredith
case and, 173–76, 177–78, 181–85, 186–87, 189; political career of, 137; professional experience of, 135–36; second
Hampton
case and, 160–63, 164–65, 166–70, 178, 179, 187; 2011 pupil reassignment plan lawsuit and, 190–91

Gratz v. Bollinger
, 175–76

Graves, Bob, 82–83

Grayson, Ernest, 100–101

Great Depression, 37, 41, 63

Great Migration, 33–34, 37, 42, 75

Greensboro, North Carolina, 57

Greenville, South Carolina, 155

Green v. New Kent County
, 78–79, 80

Grubbs, Milliard, 48, 53, 54

Grutter v. Bollinger
, 176, 182

Hampton, Sandra, 133, 138

Hampton v. Jefferson County Board of Education
, ix–x, 132–33, 135–39, 143–54, 158–70, 179, 187

Hanushek, Eric, 183

harassment.
See
racial harassment and intimidation

Harlan, John, 47, 187

Harvard Graduate School of Education, 196

Hawkins, Sam, 70, 71–72

Haycraft, John, 83–84

Haycraft v. Board of Education
, 83–84, 88, 89

Hays, Rutherford, 31

HEW (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare), 77, 78, 81–82, 85

Heyburn, John G.:
Hampton
case and, 139, 140–41, 144–49, 150, 152–54, 161–62, 166–70, 179;
McFarland
case and, 175–76, 178;
Meredith
case and, 175–76, 178, 181; 2011 pupil reassignment plan lawsuit and, 190–91

Hill, Anita, 120

Hilliard, Clara, 138

Hoblitzell, Bruce, 59

Hooper, Sara Jo, 102

Hopkinsville High School, 109

Hopson, Dejuan, 3, 5

Hopson, Dionne: activism of, 28; Central High admissions efforts of, 2–3, 8, 10, 11–12, 27, 150; on discrimination, 192; elementary school experience of, 5–7, 14; as
Hampton
lawsuit plaintiff, 133,
143, 145–46, 170; high school experience of, 138, 143, 152, 170, 192–93; loss of her father, 8, 10–11, 70, 192; middle school experience of, 7–8; personality of, 4, 10–11; racial harassment of, 7–8

Hopson, Gwendolyn “Gwen”: activism of, 27–28; early years of, 4–5, 9–10; as education activist, 9, 12; education of, 3, 8–9, 67; as
Hampton
lawsuit plaintiff, 133, 138, 143, 169–70; as a parent, 3–4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12

Hopson, Thurman, 3, 8, 10

housing: discrimination, 21, 44–45, 48–49, 58–59, 63–65, 96–97; integration, 21, 44–45, 48–49, 58–59, 63–65, 68, 198; low-income, 86; segregation, 43, 44–45, 48–49, 88, 96–97

Houston, Charles, 43

“How to Integrate” (
Time
), 55

Hurricane Katrina, 195

Hyde County, North Carolina, 50

illiteracy, functional, 104

incentive programs, 126, 127, 128–30

income-based student assignment plans, 189–90

Independent Voters Association, 39

Ingwerson, Don Wayne: early years of, 101; incentive plan, 126, 127, 128–30; magnet school plan, 112–14; pupil reassignment plan, 129–30; resignation of, 131; as school superintendent, 102, 103–4, 140, 148

integration.
See
racial integration

intimidation.
See
racial harassment and intimidation

Issacharoff, Samuel, 155

Jackson, Jesse, 26, 85

Jackson State University, 108

Jefferson County Public School System: income-based student assignment plan, 189–90; KCLU lawsuits against, 83–84; Louisville school system merger, 84, 88, 90, 160; QUEST view of racism in, 154; racial guideline policies of, 173; school desegregation policies of, 2–3, 4, 13, 14, 18, 23, 27, 56, 112–14, 126, 129–30, 140; student racial makeup of, 102; teacher desegregation policies of, 57; as unitary district, 150, 169.
See also
Louisville school system

Jeffersontown, Kentucky, 97

Jim Crow era, 4, 17, 19, 26, 42, 65–66

Johnson, Lyman: civil rights activism of, 57, 84, 180; death of, 138; early years of, 30–31; graduate school court case of, 43, 44, 46; John G. Heyburn and, 139; as Louisville NAACP president, 159; on school desegregation, 24–25, 112, 127, 128, 151; teaching career of, 41–42, 66, 188; Wade home bombing and, 48; on Booker T. Washington, 33; Carman Weathers and, 108; Atwood Wilson and, 51

Johnson, Lyndon, 70, 76, 77–78, 79, 87, 89

Jones, Alberta, 39

Jones, Robert, 136

Judicial Conference of the United States, 139

Kammerer Middle School, 14–15

KCLU (Kentucky Civil Liberties Union), 83–84

Kennedy, Anthony, 120, 185, 186–87, 189–90, 199

Kennedy, David, 182

Kennedy, John F., 89

Kennedy, Robert, 79

Kentucky Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression, 21, 130, 158–60, 163, 187

Kentucky Civil Liberties Union (KCLU), 83–84

Kentucky Supreme Court, 191

KERA (Kentucky Education Reform Act), 121, 125–26, 149, 177, 195

Kerner Commission Report, 77

King, A. D., 67–68, 72

King, Martin Luther, Jr.: Muhammad Ali and, 69; assassination of, 9, 70, 71, 78, 79; inspiration of, 56–57, 67, 68, 164, 185; Louisville Southern Baptists and, 19; March on Washington and, 25

Klein, Joel, 196

Kluger, Richard, 42, 147

Ku Klux Klan, 26, 48, 53, 54, 89, 91, 93

Leet, Byron, 140, 150, 154, 159, 163

Liberation Bowl black history contest, 132, 189

Liberty High School, 124, 146

Little Africa neighborhood, 62–63, 65

Little Rock, Arkansas, x

Logan, Lisa, 138

Louisville, Kentucky: black leadership of, 20; culture of, 101–2; housing laws, 43; image of, 53, 54; integration of, 19; location of, 36; racism in, 19, 20, 37, 59; segregation in, 36–37; suburban growth, 36, 74–75

Louisville Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, 41–42

Louisville Courier-Journal
, 12, 20, 23, 48, 57, 95, 101, 125, 153, 181

Louisville Municipal College for Negroes, 39

Louisville school system: income-based student assignment plan, 189–90; Jefferson County school system merger, 84, 88, 90, 160; racial ratios in, 126; school choice and, 24, 55–56, 78, 79, 157, 194, 196; school desegregation policies, 52–53, 54, 55–56, 62, 86, 103–4, 176; size of, 102; traditional schools in, 173–76; as a unitary district, 150, 169

Louisville Times
, 43–44, 46

Lowell High School, San Francisco, 155

lunch counter sit-ins, 57

magnet schools, 8; admission policies, 170, 174; Afrocentric, 131; black students and, 24, 55–56, 129, 132–33, 133–34; as desegregation tool, 2–3, 83, 113–14, 130, 155, 162, 169, 191; job training, 11; popularity of, 137–38; success of, 155; white students and, 55–56, 129, 132–34

Male High School: Central High School rivalry, 95; early years of, 38; gender integration in, 52; racial integration in, 52–54, 67, 68, 96, 138, 162, 164

Manual High School, 82, 113–14, 138, 162, 164

Marshall, Thurgood, 24, 43, 46, 78–79, 118, 119, 120

Maupin Elementary School, 2, 4–5, 10

McConnell, Mitch, 139

McFarland, David, 173, 174, 175, 181

McFarland v. Jefferson County Board of Education
, 173–76, 177–78, 181–82

McMillan, Joseph, 130, 146–48

Meese, Edwin, III, 116–17

Mellen, Frank, 140, 145, 154, 169, 184, 185

Mendez v. Westminster
, 47

Meredith, Crystal, 172–73, 174–75, 181, 184, 186, 187

Meredith, James, x

Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education
, ix, x, 173–78, 181–85, 186–87, 189, 199

Merritt, Joan Shields, 138

middle-income families, 38, 96–97, 113, 116, 174, 176, 188

military, racial integration of, 58–59

Milliken v. Bradley
, 88, 89

Mills, Roger, 120

Minnis, Bernard, 92

Montgomery County, Maryland, 154

Moss, Loueva, 23

Muse, Clyde, 117

“My Old Kentucky Home,” 19–20, 75

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People): Black Nationalism and, 37; black teacher salary campaign of, 41–43;
Brown
decision and, 54, 77, 78, 183; Civil Rights Act of 1964 and, 79–80; “doll studies,” 183; W. E. B. Du Bois and, 49; HEW complaint filings of, 81, 83; Lyman Johnson and, 24, 159; as pro-integration activists, 85; Seattle school desegregation lawsuit, 182; sit-ins and, 57; Booker T. Washington and, 33

National Assessment of Educational Progress, 105, 121, 125, 191

National Baptist Church, 33

National Black Political Convention, 85

National Negro High School Basketball Tournament, 39

A Nation at Risk
report, 104–5, 120

Nation of Islam, 25–26, 69

Nation Time, 25–26, 37, 85–96

NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act, 177, 178, 188, 198

Nelson County, Kentucky, 75

Newberg Area Council v. Board of Education
, 83, 84, 88, 89

Newburg, Kentucky, 83–84, 110

New Orleans, 195–96

Newton, Fran.
See
Thomas, Fran Newton

Newton, Huey, 69, 72

New York City, 196

New York Times
, 55, 72, 121

1960s racial turmoil, 19–10, 68, 70–72, 76

Nixon, Richard, 79, 82, 85, 87, 88, 90

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, 177, 178, 188, 198

No Excuses
(Thernstrom), 178

Norfolk, Virginia, 117, 118, 121

Norton Elementary School, 14–15

Obama, Barack, 189, 195, 196, 197

O'Connor, Sandra Day, 176, 181–82

Oklahoma City, 117, 127

Okolona, Kentucky, 22, 93, 94, 97, 110

Old Kentucky Home High School, 74, 75

Old Louisville neighborhood, 68

Orange County, California, 101–2

Orfield, Gary, 148–49, 161–62, 169, 175

outcomes.
See
accountability and outcomes

out-migration, 33–34

Pacific Legal Foundation, 183–84

Panetta, Leon, 82

Parents for Quality Education, 97–98

Parents Involved in Community Schools, 182–83

Parents v. Seattle School District
, ix, x, 182–83, 185, 186–87, 191, 199

Park DuValle Community Health Center, 139

Parkland Elementary School, 10

Parkland neighborhood, 2, 4–5, 9–10, 68

Payzant, Thomas, 196

Peace Corps, 70

Pew Research Center, 198

Plan X busing plan, 89, 94, 95, 110

Pleasure Ridge Park High School, 12, 138, 143

Plessy, Homer, 32

Plessy v. Ferguson
, 32, 43, 46, 47, 50, 56, 118, 187

Porter, Maude Brown, 8, 38, 180

Porter, Steve, 128, 141, 151, 158, 159–60, 161, 163–67

Porter, Woodford, Sr., 114–15

post–Civil War South, 31

poverty: anti-poverty programs, 194–95; busing and, 113, 114; Depression era, 37; educational level and, 67; educational opportunity and, 96–97, 101, 114, 121, 128, 176–77, 192, 198; housing and, 86; income-based student assignment plans and, 189–90; parental expectations and, 102; racial integration and, 62–65; rural community, 6, 7; school closure and, 110–11; summer learning loss and, 188; unemployment and, 26, 37, 72; urban renewal and, 50, 62–65, 67, 188, 196; wealth gap and, 26; white flight and, 15–16

Powell, Lewis, 88, 91

Powers, Georgia, 128–29, 140

Prince Hall Masons, 9

private school vouchers, 156–57

Project Renaissance, 129–30, 131, 132–34, 140–41, 148, 157 protest zones, 22, 93–94