180
The advantages of help given by grandmothers:
Hrdy (1999) and Hawkes et al. (1998) discuss the importance of cooperation in hunter-gatherer families.
180
the thrifty-gene hypothesis:
Wells (2006) reviews the idea of the “thrifty-gene hypothesis,” suggesting that humans are physiologically adapted to an erratic food supply. He implies that great apes are not subject to significant seasonal variation in food supply, which is clearly untrue (Pusey et al. [2005]). As Pond (1998) notes, humans lose relatively little body fat during seasonal food shortage compared to tropical animals of similar size.
182
Every species other than humans can maintain adequate body heat without fire:
Darwin appears to have thought of fire as an adaptive response to cold. In his discussion of humans’ ability to adapt to new conditions, he wrote, “When he migrates into a colder climate he uses clothes, builds sheds, and makes fires; and by the aid of fire cooks food otherwise indigestible” (Darwin [1871], chapter 6). Although the first fire-users did not need fire, they could have benefited energetically from it (Pullen [2005]).
182
Humans are exceptional runners:
Bramble and Lieberman (2004).
183
Homo erectus
could have lost their hair only if:
Wheeler (1992) explained human hair loss as a way to lose heat but did not discuss the use of fire to solve thermoregulation at night. Pagel and Bodmer (2003) note that fire would have solved the problem of maintaining warmth when inactive, but argued that the benefit of the loss of hair would have been reduced vulnerability to parasites, rather than allowing increased rates of heat loss by day.
183
human babies are unique:
Kuzawa (1998) notes that although the exceptionally thick fat layer of human babies is commonly assumed to function as insulation to compensate for hairlessness, it serves additional functions, such as providing energy to fight infection or to tide babies over during periods of food shortage. Human infants gain fat shortly before birth and average 15 percent fat, compared to 1 percent to 2 percent in most mammals. Pond (1998) argues that although humans are often hypothesized to be relatively fat as adults, there is much evidence against the idea that fat insulates us as adults. Human fat concentrations are about the same in all climates and are not located in parts of the body that are effective for insulation.
184
Raymond and Lorna Coppinger:
Coppinger and Coppinger (2000).
185
In animals, more tolerant individuals cooperate:
Chimpanzees more tolerant: Melis et al. (2006a, 2006b). Bonobos more tolerant: Hare et al. (2007). Foxes more tolerant: Hare et al. (2005).
186
“expectations of men’s entitlement”:
DeVault (1997), p. 180.
186
a primal urge to quench the flames:
cited in Goudsblom (1992), p. 19.
187
Paranthropus
relied mainly on a diet:
Sponheimer et al. (2006).
188
lions and saber-tooths:
Werdelin and Lewis (2005) review the predators living in Africa during early human and prehuman evolution.
188
the short sticks chimpanzees use:
Pruetz and Bertolani (2007).
188
chimpanzees now sometimes scare pigs or humans with well-aimed missiles:
Goodall (1986).
188
If they threw rocks:
Toth and Schick (2006) review the use of rocks in the earliest stone age, from 2.6 million years ago.
189
Knowing that habilines were able to cut steaks:
Overview of habiline feeding strategies: Perlès (1999), Dominguez-Rodrigo (2002), Ungar (2006). Plummer (2004) discusses habilines and
Homo erectus
in relation to tools and diet.
190
children as young as two years old make their own fires:
Goudsblom (1992, p. 197) cites anecdotes of two-and three-year-olds making their own fires from their mothers’ fires among both Tiwi and Kung !San.
190
chimpanzees and bonobos can tend fires:
Brewer (1978, pp. 174-176) described the behavior of chimpanzees that were being rehabilitated into the wild in Senegal. They managed camp fires in a rudimentary way for cooking and warmth. Raffaele (2006) mentions fire-making by Kanzi, the bonobo studied by Savage-Rumbaugh (Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin [1994]). Brink (1957) describes chimpanzees in Johannesburg Zoo chain-smoking cigarettes by continuously lighting them.
190
Sparks produced by accident from pounded rocks:
Darwin (1871), p. 52. The Oldowan stone-tool culture that habilines must have used includes numerous fist-size hammerstones that could well have served the purpose of tenderizing meat (Mora and de la Torre [2005]).
191
Yakuts of Siberia:
Frazer (1930), p. 226.
191
tinder fungus:
Tinder fungus: survival manuals recommend catching fire on species of the genus
Fomes
, because after sparks land on the dry bracket fungus, they spread slowly in a widening ring, staying alight a long time (e.g.,
www.wildwoodsurvival.com/survival/fire/twostones
). The preferred species,
Fomes fomentarius
, is common in East Africa. It holds fire so well that Osage Indians of North America kept fire for several days by taking tinder fungus from inside a hollow tree, lighting it, enclosing it in earth, placing it between the two valves of a hollow mussel shell, and wrapping and binding it with cord (Hough [1926], p. 3).
191
Anthropologists caution:
Oakley (1955), Collin et al. (1991). Rowlett (1999) reported that chert artifacts good for starting fires were unusually numerous at Koobi Fora.
191
standard components of fire-making kits:
Hough (1926), Frazer (1930).
192
a eucalyptus tree can smolder:
Clark and Harris (1985).
192
burning nonstop near Antalya:
The flames can be seen near Antalya in the shadow of Mount Olympus. Methane and other gases emerge from narrow slits in the rock many meters long, creating a cluster of “eternal” flames in the bare hill-side. Homer described it as the place where the monster Chimera lit the earth with its dying breath. The flames appear to have declined in height over the past two thousand to three thousand years but show no sign of being extinguished.
193
Among Australian aborigines:
Tindale (1974).
193
When people stop, they start a small fire:
Turnbull (1962), p. 58, illustrates the pattern with Mbuti Pygmies of central Africa: “The first thing they do when they stop on the trail for a rest is to unwrap the ember and, putting some dry twigs around it, blow softly once or twice and transform it into a blazing fire.” Basedow (1925), p. 110, describes a similar pattern for the Aranda of Australia: “Perhaps the most important article a native possesses is the fire-stick. No matter where he might be, on the march or in camp, it is his constant companion. Important as it is, the fire-stick is only a short length of dry branch or bark, smouldering at one end. It is carried in the hand with a waving motion, from one side to another. When walking in the dark, this motion is brisker in order to keep alive sufficient flame for lighting the way. A body of natives walking in this way at night, in the customary Indian file, is indeed an imposing sight. Directly a halt is made, a fire is lit, to cook the meals at day and to supply warmth during sleep at night. When camp is left, a fresh stick is taken from the fire and carried on to the next stopping place.” Such behavior has been widely described in hunter-gatherers.
Epilogue: The Well-Informed Cook
195
“overweight enough to begin experiencing health problems”:
Critser (2003).
195
as John Kenneth Galbraith first noted:
Galbraith (1958).
196
The detail of biochemical knowledge:
Johnson (1994, 2001), Smith and Morton (2001).
201
tweak the original Atwater system:
Southgate and Durnin (1970) extended Atwater’s general factors; Southgate (1981) presented further modifications.
202
our metabolic rate rises, the maximum increase averaging 25 percent:
Data on the costs of digestion and factors affecting it: Secor (2009).
202
people eating a high-fat diet:
Sims and Danforth (1987).
203
the costs of digestion are higher for tougher or harder foods than softer foods:
Secor (2009).
203
for foods with larger than smaller particles:
Heaton et al. (1988).
203
When A. L. Merrill and B. K. Watt introduced the Atwater specific-factor system:
Merrill and Watt (1955).
204
many nutritionists have called for a major revision of the Atwater convention:
Livesey (2001) cites twenty-two expert reviews, reports, and regulatory documents calling for a change to the system for characterizing energy value in food labels. Collectively, these reports favor the view that the heat increment produced during digestion should be taken into account.
206
Japanese women:
Murakami et al. (2007). See et al. (2007) showed that larger waists are associated with increased moratality.
206
as food-writer Michael Pollan has argued:
Pollan (2008).
206
We once thought of our species as infinitely adaptable:
Archaeologist Robert Kelly expresses a popular view: “There is no original human society, no basal human adaptation: studying modern hunter-gatherers in order to subtract the effects of contact with the world system (were that possible) and to uncover universal behaviors with the goal of reconstructing the original hunter-gatherer lifeway is simply not possible—because that lifeway never existed” (Kelly [1995], p. 337). Archaeologist Rick Potts illustrates the same idea. “It is patently incorrect,” he says, “to characterize the human ancestral environment as a set of specific repetitive elements, statistical regularities, or uniform problems which the cognitive mechanisms unique to humans are designed to solve” (Potts [1998], pp. 129-130). Adaptation to the hearth suggests these kinds of views need to be modified.
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