Authors: Bill Bryson
"ah" such as exist between
cot
and
caught.
In the South, on the other hand, there is a general reluctance or inability to distinguish clearly between
fall
and
foal, oil
and
all, poet
and pour
it, morning
and
moaning, peony
and
penny, fire
and
far, sawer
and sour,
courier
and
Korea, ahs
and
eyes, are
and
hour,
and many others.
Sometimes these speech preferences can pinpoint speakers to a fairly precise area. People in South Carolina, for instance, say
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THE MOTHER TONGUE
44
vegetubbles," but in North Carolina it's "vegetibbles." North Car-olinians also give themselves away when they say, "She's still in the bed" and "Let's do this one at the time." People in Philadelphia don't say
attitude,
they say "attytude," and they don't have a down-town, they have a center city, which is divided not into blocks but squares. In one small area of eastern Virginia people tend to say
about
and
house as
Canadians do, saying (roughly) "aboot" and
"house." These linguistic pockets are surprisingly numerous. In southern Utah, around St. George, there's a pocket where people speak a peculiar dialect called—no one seems quite sure why—
Dixie, whose principal characteristics are the reversal of "ar" and
"or" sounds, so that a person from St. George doesn't park his car in a carport, but rather porks his core in a corepart. The bright objects in the night sky are stores, while the heroine of
The Wizard
of
Oz is Darthy. When someone leaves a door open, Dixie speakers don't say, "Were you born in a barn?" They say, "Were you barn in a born?"
Add all these regional peculiarities together and it might be possible to trace any one person with considerable precision. A sufficiently sophisticated computer could probably place with rea-sonable accuracy, sometimes to within a few miles, almost any English-speaking person depending on how he pronounced the following ten words:
cot, caught, cart, bomb, balm, oil, house,
horse, good,
and
water.
Just four of these words—bomb,
balm, cot,
and caught—could serve as regional shibboleths for almost every American, according to the dialectologist W. Nelson Francis.
When an American airline received anonymous telephone threats, the linguistics authority William Labov of the University of Penn-sylvania was able to identify the caller
as
coming from within a seventy-five-mile radius of Boston. His testimony helped to clear a man from greater New York accused of the crime. [Cited in Amer-ican
Talk,
page 2]
Although the main dialect boundaries run from east to west, dividing America into a kind of linguistic layer cake, some impor-tant speech differences in fact run from north to south. People along the East Coast tend to pronounce words such as
foreign
and
horrible as
"fahrun" and "harruble," whereas people further west,
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VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
whether from the North or South, tend to say 'Torun - (or "forn") and "horruble." People along much of the eastern seaboard can distinguish between words that are elsewhere in America strictly homonyms:
horse
and
hoarse, morning
and
mourning, for
and
four.
[All cited by Pyles, page 270]
Kurath was aware that his four main speech divisions were not adequate. He subdivided the four regions into eighteen further speech areas, and we should remember that he was only dealing with the eastern states as far south as South Carolina. If we were to project those divisions onto the rest of the country (and bearing in mind that regional differences tend to diminish as we move west), we could expect to find perhaps fifty or sixty subareas. But it may be that a really thorough study would show that there are hun-dreds, even thousands, of regional speech divisions.
We have really only just begun to look at the matter seriously.
The most famous large-scale study of American dialects, the
Dic-
tionary of American Regional English (DARE),
began work only in 1963, under the direction of Frederic Cassidy. A hundred field-workers, armed with stacks of questionnaires, were sent to 1,000
carefully selected communities to interview 2,777 informants. Each questionnaire contained 1,847 questions divided into forty-one cat-egories designed to tease out local or regional names for practically everything, from household utensils to feelings of affection to slang words for passing gas. The researchers collected a phenomenal 2.5
million items. They found more than 100,000 variations in termi-nology and pronounciation throughout the country, including 79
names for dragonfly, 130 names for oak trees, and 176 names for dust balls under the bed. (We just called them dust balls under the bed.) Something of the colossal scale of the undertaking is indi-cated by the fact that nearly a century elapsed between the book's being proposed and the publication of Volume 1 (A to C) in 1985, which itself takes up 1,056 pages. Five volumes altogether are planned.
It seems churlish to say it when so many years of dedicated work have gone into
DARE,
but it is hard to escape the conclusion that it is not truly comprehensive. In Iowa not one informant was from Des Moines, the state capital, and not one was black. Yet the
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THE MOTHER TONGUE
speech patterns and vocabulary of people raised in Des Moines are quite distinct from those of people brought up in rural areas of the state, and this division is almost certainly even more pronounced among black people. However, a more exhaustive approach would not necessarily guarantee a more accurate survey. Since 1 931 dil-igent scholars have been collecting data for the much more thor-ough
Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada,
but they are not finished yet. In 1939, the first volume, the
Linguistic Atlas
of New England, was
produced and the work has been proceeding west-ward ever since. The problem is that by the time the west-ernmost states are dealt with more than half a century will have elapsed and the early volumes will be largely out of date.
Why do we have all these regional variations? Why do people in Boston and New York call white coffee "regular" when everywhere else regular coffee is black? Why do people in Texas say "arn" for iron? Why do so many people in New York say "doo-awg" for
dog,
"oo-awf" for
off,
"kee-ab" for
cab,
"thoid" for
third,
"erster" for
oyster?
There is certainly no shortage of theories, some of which may be charitably described as being less than half-baked. Charl-ton Laird, generally a shrewd and reliable observer of the vagaries of English, writes in
The Miracle of Language:
"The New York City variant of
doy
for
die, boy
for
buy, thoid
for
third
suggests forms in Yorkshire, which are reflections of the strong influence of old York upon the New York." That is just nonsense; people in Yorkshire simply do not speak that way and never have. Robert Hendrickson in
American Talk
cites the interesting theory, which he attributes to a former professor of Hofstra University, that the New York accent may come from Gaelic. The hallmark of the New York accent is of course the "oi" diphthong as in
thoidy-thoid
for
thirty-
third
and
moider
for murder, and Hendrickson points out that oi appears in many Gaelic words, such as
taoiseach
(the Irish term for prime minister). However, there are one or two considerations that suggest this theory may need further work. First, oi is not pronounced "oy" in Gaelic;
taoiseach
is pronounced "tea-sack."
Second, there is no tradition of converting "ir" sounds to "oi" ones in Ireland, such as would result in murder becoming
moider.
And
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VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
third, most of the Irish immigrants to New York didn't speak Gaelic anyway.
But there are other factors at work, such as history and geogra-phy. The colonists along the eastern seaboard naturally had closer relationships with England than those colonists who moved inland.
That explains at least partly why the English of the eastern sea-board tends to have so much in common with British English—the tendency to put a "yew" sound into words like
stew
and
Tuesday,
the tendency to have broader and rounder "a" and "o" sounds, the tendency to suppress "r" sounds in words like
car
and
horse.
There are also similarities of vocabulary.
Queer
is still widely used in the South in the sense of strange or odd.
Common
still has a pejorative flavor (as in "She's so common") that it lacks elsewhere in America.
Ladybugs,
as
they are known in the North, are still called ladybirds in the South and sidewalks in some areas are called pavements,
as
they are in Britain. All of these are a result of the closer links between such East Coast cities
as
Boston, Savannah, and Charles-ton and Britain.
Fashion comes into it too. When the custom arose in eighteenth-century Britain of pronouncing words like
bath
and
path
with a broad a rather than a flat one, the practice was imitated along the eastern seaboard, but not further inland, where people were clearly less susceptible to considerations of what fashionable so-ciety thought of them. In Boston, the new fashion was embraced to such an extent that up to the middle of the last century, ac-cording to
H.
L. Mencken, people used the broad
a in
such im-probable words as
apple, hammer, practical,
and
Saturday.
Related to all these factors is probably the most important, and certainly the least understood, factor of all, social bonding, as re-vealed in a study by William Labov of the University of Pennsyl-vania, probably America's leading dialectologist. Labov studied the accents of New York City and found that they were more compli-cated and diverse than was generally assumed. In particular he studied the sound of r's in words like
more, store,
and car. As recently as the 193os such r's were never voiced by native New Yorkers, but over the years they have come increasingly to be
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THE MOTHER TONGUE
spoken—but only sometimes. Whether or not people voiced the r in a given instance was thought to be largely random. But Labov found that there was actually much more of a pattern to it. In a word, people were using r's as a way of signaling their social stand-ing, rather like the flickerings of fireflies. The higher one's social standing, the more often the r's were flickered, so to speak. Upper middle-class speakers pronounced the r about
zo
percent of the time in casual speech, about 3o percent of the time in careful speech, and 6o percent of the time in highly careful speech (when asked to read a list of words). The comparable figures for lower-class speakers were 10 percent for the first two and 3o percent for the third. More than that, Labov found, most people used or dis-regarded r's as social circumstances demanded. He found that sales assistants in department stores tended to use many more r's when addressed by middle-class people than when speaking to lower-class customers. In short, there was very little randomness in-volved.
Even more interestingly, Labov found that certain vowel sounds were more specific to one ethnic group or another. For instance, the tendency to turn
bag
into something more like "be-agg" and
bad into
"be-add" was more frequent among second-generation Italians, while the tendency—and I should stress that it was no more than that—among lower-class Jewish speakers was to drawl certain "o" sounds, turning
dog
into "doo-awg,"
coffee into
"coo-awfee." The suggestion is that this is a kind of hypercorrection. The speakers are unconsciously trying to distance themselves from their parents' foreign accents. Yiddish speakers tended to have trouble with certain unfamiliar English vowel sounds. They tended to turn
cup of coffee into
"cop of coffee." The presumption is that their children compensated for this by overpronouncing those vowels.
Hence the accent.
So while certain distinctive pronunciations like "doo-er" (or
"doo-ah") for
door,
"oo-off" for
off,
"kee-ab" for
cab,
"moider" for
murder,
and so on are all features of the New York accent, almost no native New Yorker uses more than a few of them.
Outside New York, regional accents play an important part in binding people together—sometimes in unexpected ways. On Mar-io6
VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
tha's Vineyard the "ou" sound of
house
and
loud
was traditionally pronounced "haus - and "laoud." With the rise of tourism, the normal, sharper American "house" pronunciation was introduced to the island and for a while threatened to drive out the old sound.
But a study reported by Professor Peter Trudgill in
Sociolinguistics
[page 23] found that the old pronunciation was on the increase, particularly among people who had left the island to work and later come back. They were using the old accent as a way of distinguish-ing themselves from off-islanders.
Dialects are sometimes said to be used as a shibboleth. People in Northern Ireland are naturally attentive to clues as to whether a person is Catholic or Protestant, and generally assume that if he has a North Down or east Belfast accent he is Protestant, and that if he has a South Armagh or west Belfast accent he is Catholic. But the differences in accent are often very slight—west Belfast people are more likely to say "thet" for
that,
while people in east Belfast say "hahn" for hand—and not always reliable. In fact, almost the only consistent difference is that Protestants say "aitch" for the eighth letter of the alphabet while Catholics say "haitch," though whether this quirk "has been used by both the IRA and the UDR