The Glory of the Crusades (21 page)

Despite his lack of military acumen and political focus, Philip took the cross and made preparations to travel to Outrémer.

On July 2, 1190 the kings of England and France met at Vézelay, the famed site of the great St. Bernard’s preaching of the Second Crusade. They agreed that all conquered land would be split between them, and that the armies would travel by sea.

The 219 ships carrying the Anglo-French Crusaders sailed through the Mediterranean on their way to Crete. Unfortunately, several ships were scattered from the main fleet due to a severe storm and were wrecked on the island of Cyprus. The shipwrecked Crusaders were not greeted warmly by the Byzantine rebel in control of the island, Isaac Comnenus, and were imprisoned. News of the shipwreck and imprisonment reached Richard, who demanded that Isaac release his men. Isaac, foolishly, refused to do so. That decision prompted Richard to invade the island to rescue his men. But “what may have begun as a rescue soon became a conquest.”
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The Conquest of Cyprus

In May 1191, Richard’s Crusade host embarked on a fourteen-day campaign that changed the history of the Crusading movement. Richard’s invasion seemed a foolhardy adventure: His force was greatly outnumbered by a foe behind defensive fortifications on its own territory. Yet this was exactly the type of fight Richard specialized in. The chronicler Ambroise recorded a story that illustrates Richard’s risky behavior and the jovial manner in which he engaged in it.

A cleric, Hugh de la Mare, came to the king attired for war, and with advice the monarch cumbered: “Sire, we are fearfully outnumbered; Let us retreat at once!” whereto the king replied, “Sir Clerk, for you a pulpit were a fitter post than here amid an armored host: For God’s sake and his mother’s, then, leave the affairs of war to men!”
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Richard launched an amphibious attack on the city of Limassol and forced Isaac to flee inland. (Before pursuing the Greek upstart, though, Richard took the time to get married to Berengaria of Navarre.) Embarking his troops on their transport ships, Richard sailed around Cyprus to Famagusta, where another amphibious landing caused Isaac to retreat again. Richard’s army pursued the rebel into the interior, where they defeated his army in a series of skirmishes. Toward the end of May Isaac realized that he could not defeat Richard, so he agreed to surrender on the condition that Richard not clap him in irons. Richard agreed, and when Isaac surrendered, Richard ordered him clapped in silver shackles instead!
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Although the conquest of Cyprus was not on the Crusade agenda, its capture proved providential. It was an excellent base of supply for the Third Crusade and future Crusades and became “the most lasting Crusader achievement in the eastern Mediterranean,” remaining in Christian hands for the next 400 years.
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Breaking the Siege of Acre

The campaign season of 1190 was a frustrating time for the Christians besieging the city of Acre, who had arrived under the banner of the released King Guy in the summer of 1189. Their action consisted of continually assaulting the walls to no effect, and defending their fortified position from assaults by Saladin’s relief army. The stalemate was grating on the nerves of the soldiers, and one estimate indicated disease and starvation killed 100 to 200 warriors each day.
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Conditions in the Christian camp were disgusting, as the corpses of men and animals attracted large number of flies. Food was so scarce that knights succumbed to eating their mounts and the bones of dogs.
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Thankfully, King Philip’s army arrived on April 20, 1191. The army built siege engines, including a massive catapult nicknamed the “Evil Neighbor” and a large siege tower to help with the assault on the walls.
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After his delay at Cyprus, Richard reached the siege on June 8. His arrival tilted the siege in favor of the Christians; on July 12 the Muslim garrison finally realized its valiant two year defense was at an end and asked for terms of surrender. The Christians allowed the garrison to leave unmolested in exchange for the return of the True Cross captured at Hattin, payment of 200,000 dinars (gold coins), the release of all Christian prisoners, and Saladin’s fleet of seventy galleys.
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The Massacre of Muslim Prisoners

Despite the generous terms, Saladin did not fulfill most of the conditions. He refused to hand over the True Cross, did not deliver the first payment of money on the due date and failed to release the promised Christian prisoners on time despite given thirty days to comply. Ten days after the due date, on August 20, 1191, in retaliation for Saladin’s non-compliance, Richard ordered the execution of 2,700 Muslim prisoners. Richard explained in a later letter why he gave the order:

On Saladin’s behalf it had been agreed that the Holy Cross and 1,500 living persons would be handed over to us, and he fixed a day for us when all this was to be done. But the time limit expired, and, as the pact which he had agreed was entirely made void, we quite properly had the Saracens we had in custody—about 2,600 of them—put to death. A few of the more notable were spared, and we hope to recover the Holy Cross and certain Christian captives in exchange for them.
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Modern-day critics of the Crusades frequently cite the massacre of Muslim prisoners at Acre as a prime example of sinful and shameful behavior of Christian warriors in the name of God. But, like the massacre at Jerusalem in 1099, this action must be viewed in its historical context and with full presentation of the facts. Frequently, the mention of Richard’s massacre by Crusade critics omits the relevant context of Saladin’s reneging on the terms of surrender, and the fact that Saladin performed equal and greater acts of barbarism on Christian prisoners. Indeed, more than likely Saladin was not surprised at Richard’s reaction. “The sultan probably recognized the massacre for what it was: a deliberate act of policy for which his own actions were in part responsible. Over the following weeks he treated captured Christian soldiers with summary execution, occasionally allowing their corpses to be mutilated out of revenge.”
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Although the execution of these prisoners cannot be condoned, it can be explained. Richard was leaving Acre soon, and did not want a large body of hostile Muslims behind him. Medieval warfare allowed such butchery when terms of surrender were not obeyed. Richard also understood the action would send a clear signal to Saladin that future negotiations and
agreements should be honored. Although horrific to the sensibilities of modern readers, “Richard I’s butchery of his Muslim captives was an atrocity not uncommon in war. It was not an act of random sadism, less so, for example, than Saladin’s own execution of the Templars and Hospitallers after Hattin.”
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The Departure of Philip

Less than a month after the Muslims surrendered Acre, the Christian camp was abuzz: King Philip had announced that he was leaving the Crusade. The bulk of the French army would remain under the command of the Duke of Burgundy and fight under Richard’s command for the remainder of the Crusade.

Philip was ill and upset that Richard received most of the glory and recognition for ending the siege at Acre. He also desired to gain control of Richard’s land holdings in France, although before he left he had sworn that he would not do so upon his return.
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Philip was heavily criticized in France for leaving the Crusade, just as previous deserters had been. Although he stressed the illness he contracted at Acre as a main reason for his departure, this was not considered a legitimate excuse to leave the Crusade—to retreat from battle, yes, but not from a Crusade. The Crusade vow was a sacred oath that medieval people believed could not be easily ignored or left unfulfilled. Regardless of the reason for his departure, “Philip’s actions left a sour taste for generations.”
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The March of the Lion-Hearted

Less than a week after the massacre of Muslim prisoners, Richard ordered his army to leave Acre and march eighty miles to the port city of Jaffa. Controlling Jaffa was necessary for logistical supply before any assault on Jerusalem. Saladin’s army shadowed the Crusaders and repeatedly tried to harass them into an open battle. Richard countered by forming his army into a hollow formation in which the cavalry was placed inside a protective box of infantry on one side and the coast on the other.
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This formation required strict discipline and coordination between cavalry and infantry. The Crusaders marched in three divisions with the Hospitallers in the rear and Templars in the vanguard, and the Mediterranean protecting their western flank. When the eastern flank of infantry grew weary from the harassing Muslims’ constant arrow barrage, a complicated maneuver of replacement occurred with forces marching along the coast.

Richard’s fleet followed the progress of the army offshore, providing relief and supplies when needed. Although the Crusaders exhibited great endurance and discipline, the march was very slow, and there were many wounded from the Muslim attacks, including Richard. The situation could not continue without decisive action. Saladin needed to force a confrontation before Richard arrived at Jaffa. He decided to order a general attack outside the town of Arsuf.

The Battle of Arsuf

The Crusaders broke camp and began the march to Arsuf on the morning of September 7, 1191. It was an extremely hot day and Saladin hoped to utilize a familiar tactic of attacking at the end of the day when soldiers were “tired, thirsty, and eager to claim a good spot for their tent.”
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His light cavalry would harass the Crusader line in the hopes of provoking a disorganized counter-charge, which would allow Saladin’s archers to finish off Richard’s army. Richard’s plan was to withstand the archers’ volleys while maintaining ranks and, when the Muslims engaged for close combat on tired horses, he would order a mass cavalry charge and win the day. Saladin ordered the attack and the Muslims rode to battle with a deafening roar designed to strike fear in the hearts of the Crusaders.
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The battle grew in intensity and the situation became desperate in the section commanded by Garnier de Naples, the grand master of the Hospitallers, who sent messengers to Richard requesting permission to order a charge to alleviate the Muslim pressure. Richard refused because he wanted to wait for the right moment and order a general charge across the line. The Muslim attacks began to take their toll, forcing Garnier to ride to Richard personally and request, once again, permission to charge. A second time Richard refused.

Shortly thereafter, the Muslim infantry supporting the harassing cavalry broke contact, which allowed the Muslim cavalry to charge the Crusader ranks. Garnier was concerned they would break the Crusader line, so he ordered a counter-charge.

The Hospitallers’ offensive attack was so sudden that the infantry on the left wing failed to move out of the way in the melee. Seeing the charge, Richard seized the opportunity and finally ordered the general cavalry charge.

It was at the exact moment when Saladin’s forces were unprepared for it. Across the battlefield, many Muslim cavalry troops had dismounted to shoot arrows at the Crusaders. The general Crusader charge caught them unawares and unprepared to withstand such an onslaught. Muslim infantry and cavalry elements were smashed in the charge and fled in a disorganized retreat. Some Crusader units chased after the fleeing Muslims, but Richard ordered a halt in order to disengage and fall back in good order to Arsuf.

Richard noted the great victory was achieved on the vigil of the Nativity of the Blessed Mother and gave thanks to God and to her intercession.
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Saladin never again risked open battle with a Crusader force under the command of Richard the Lion-Hearted.

Richard’s Three Options

After the Battle of Arsuf, Richard’s army continued their march and arrived at the port city of Jaffa to rest and resupply. At this point in the campaign, Richard realized he had three options.

He could continue the march to Jerusalem, which was the main objective of the Crusade, but success depended on the defense of a long supply chain and a risky siege. The Crusaders could march to Ascalon instead of Jerusalem. Richard knew Saladin had destroyed the defensive works of the city and withdrawn his forces to defend Jerusalem, leaving Ascalon easily conquerable. Controlling the gateway to Egypt would divide Saladin’s empire in half, open a two-front war and put the Muslims squarely on the defensive. However, Richard knew the rank and file wanted to go to Jerusalem and were not interested in what they would see as a diversion to another city. His third option was to pursue some semblance of a diplomatic solution with Saladin, in the hope that he could negotiate the return of the Holy City. All of the options involved risk and reward, and none was clearly more favorable than another. So, Richard “pursued a game of two-handed chess . . . military action shadowing detailed negotiations.”
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By January of 1192, Richard controlled the coastal plain between Jaffa and the Judean hills. Richard’s advance was now at a crossroads, and the Crusade leaders needed to determine their next move. The Hospitallers and Templars argued against an attack on Jerusalem because the supply line would be stretched too thin, and the Crusader force would suffer attacks from the besieged city and from Muslim forces trying to relieve pressure on it. The weather was terrible and conditions were not favorable for a siege. Richard recognized that even if his force liberated Jerusalem, his troops would eventually leave, and the native lords did not possess the manpower to withstand the inevitable Saladin counter-attack. The nobles agreed that the only wise military course of action was to withdraw and march to Ascalon. So, “rash in battle, cautious in politics, but expert in military science, on 13 January Richard gave the order to withdraw.”
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