The Glass Cage: Automation and Us (35 page)

22.
Andy Pasztor, “Pilot Reliance on Automation Erodes Skills,”
Wall Street Journal
, November 5, 2010.

23.
Operational Use of Flight Path Management Systems: Final Report of the Performance-Based Operations Aviation Rulemaking Committee/Commercial Aviation Safety Team Flight Deck Automation Working Group
(Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration, September 5, 2013), www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs400/parc/parc_reco/media/2013/130908_PARC_FltDAWG_Final_Report_Recommendations.pdf.

24.
Matthew Ebbatson, “The Loss of Manual Flying Skills in Pilots of Highly Automated Airliners” (PhD thesis, Cranfield University School of Engineering, 2009). See also M. Ebbatson et al., “The Relationship between Manual Handling Performance and Recent Flying Experience in Air Transport Pilots,”
Ergonomics
53, no. 2 (2010): 268–277.

25.
Quoted in David A. Mindell,
Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing before Cybernetics
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 77.

26.
S. Bennett,
A History of Control Engineering, 1800–1930
(Stevenage, U.K.: Peter Peregrinus, 1979), 141.

27.
Tom Wolfe,
The Right Stuff
(New York: Picador, 1979), 152–154.

28.
Ebbatson, “Loss of Manual Flying Skills.”

29.
European Aviation Safety Agency, “Response Charts for ‘EASA Cockpit Automation Survey,’ ” August 3, 2012, easa.europa.eu/safety-and-research/docs/EASA%20Cockpit%20Automation%20Survey%202012%20-%20Results.pdf.

30.
Joan Lowy, “Automation in the Air Dulls Pilot Skill,”
Seattle Times
, August 30, 2011.

31.
For a good review of changes in the size of flight crews, see Delmar M. Fadden et al., “First Hand: Evolution of the 2-Person Crew Jet Transport Flight Deck,”
IEEE Global History Network
, August 25, 2008, ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/First-Hand:Evolution_of_the_2-Person_Crew_Jet_Transport_Flight_Deck.

32.
Quoted in Philip E. Ross, “When Will We Have Unmanned Commercial Airliners?,”
IEEE Spectrum
, December 2011.

33.
Scott McCartney, “Pilot Pay: Want to Know How Much Your Captain Earns?,”
The Middle Seat Terminal
(blog),
Wall Street Journal
, June 16, 2009, blogs.wsj.com/middleseat/2009/06/16/pilot-pay-want-to-know-how-much-your-captain-earns/.

34.
Dawn Duggan, “The 8 Most Overpaid & Underpaid Jobs,” Salary.com, undated, salary.com/the%2D8%2Dmost%2Doverpaid%2Dunderpaid%2Djobs/slide/9/.

35.
David A. Mindell,
Digital Apollo: Human and Machine in Spaceflight
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2011), 20.

36.
Wilbur Wright, letter, May 13, 1900, in Richard Rhodes, ed.,
Visions of Technology: A Century of Vital Debate about Machines, Systems, and the Human World
(New York: Touchstone, 1999), 33.

37.
Mindell,
Digital Apollo
, 20.

38.
Quoted in ibid., 21.

39.
Wilbur Wright, “Some Aeronautical Experiments,” speech before the Western Society of Engineers, September 18, 1901, www.wright-house.com/wright-brothers/Aeronautical.html.

40.
Mindell,
Digital Apollo
, 21.

41.
J. O. Roberts, “ ‘The Case against Automation in Manned Fighter Aircraft,”
SETP Quarterly Review
2, no. 3 (Fall 1957): 18–23.

42.
Quoted in Mindell,
Between Human and Machine
, 77.

43.
Harris,
Human Performance on the Flight Deck
, 221.

Chapter Four: THE DEGENERATION EFFECT

1.
Alfred North Whitehead,
An Introduction to Mathematics
(New York: Henry Holt, 1911), 61.

2.
Quoted in Frank Levy and Richard J. Murnane,
The New Division of Labor: How Computers Are Creating the Next Job Market
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 4.

3.
Raja Parasuraman et al., “Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation,”
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics—
Part A: Systems and Humans
30, no. 3 (2000): 286–297. See also Nadine Sarter et al., “Automation Surprises,” in Gavriel Salvendy, ed.,
Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics
, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1997).

4.
Dennis F. Galletta et al., “Does Spell-Checking Software Need a Warning Label?,”
Communications of the ACM
48, no. 7 (2005): 82–86.

5.
National Transportation Safety Board,
Marine Accident Report: Grounding of the Panamanian Passenger Ship
Royal Majesty
on Rose and Crown Shoal near Nantucket, Massachusetts, June 10, 1995
(Washington, D.C.: NTSB, April 2, 1997).

6.
Sherry Turkle,
Simulation and Its Discontents
(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2009), 55–56.

7.
Jennifer Langston, “GPS Routed Bus under Bridge, Company Says,”
Seattle Post-Intelligencer
, April 17, 2008.

8.
A. A. Povyakalo et al., “How to Discriminate between Computer-Aided and Computer-Hindered Decisions: A Case Study in Mammography,”
Medical Decision Making
33, no. 1 (January 2013): 98–107.

9.
E. Alberdi et al., “Why Are People’s Decisions Sometimes Worse with Computer Support?,” in Bettina Buth et al., eds.,
Proceedings of SAFECOMP 2009, the 28th International Conference on Computer Safety, Reliability, and Security
(Hamburg, Germany: Springer, 2009), 18–31.

10.
See Raja Parasuraman et al., “Performance Consequences of Automation-Induced ‘Complacency,’ ”
International Journal of Aviation Psychology
3, no. 1 (1993): 1–23.

11.
Raja Parasuraman and Dietrich H. Manzey, “Complacency and Bias in Human Use of Automation: An Attentional Integration,”
Human Factors
52, no. 3 (June 2010): 381–410.

12.
Norman J. Slamecka and Peter Graf, “The Generation Effect: Delineation of a Phenomenon,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
4, no. 6 (1978): 592–604.

13.
Jeffrey D. Karpicke and Janell R. Blunt, “Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping,”
Science
331 (2011): 772–775.

14.
Britte Haugan Cheng, “Generation in the Knowledge Integration Classroom” (PhD thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 2008).

15.
Simon Farrell and Stephan Lewandowsky, “A Connectionist Model of Complacency and Adaptive Recovery under Automation,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
26, no. 2 (2000): 395–410.

16.
I first discussed van Nimwegen’s work in my book
The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains
(New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 214–216.

17.
Christof van Nimwegen, “The Paradox of the Guided User: Assistance Can Be Counter-effective” (SIKS Dissertation Series No. 2008-09, Utrecht University, March 31, 2008). See also Christof van Nimwegen and Herre van Oostendorp, “The Questionable Impact of an Assisting Interface on Performance in Transfer Situations,”
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics
39, no. 3 (May 2009): 501–508; and Daniel Burgos and Christof van Nimwegen, “Games-Based Learning, Destination Feedback and Adaptation: A Case Study of an Educational Planning Simulation,” in Thomas Connolly et al., eds.,
Games-Based Learning Advancements for Multi-Sensory Human Computer Interfaces: Techniques and Effective Practices
(Hershey, Penn.: IGI Global, 2009), 119–130.

18.
Carlin Dowling et al., “Audit Support System Design and the Declarative Knowledge of Long-Term Users,”
Journal of Emerging Technologies in Accounting
5, no. 1 (December 2008): 99–108.

19.
See Richard G. Brody et al., “The Effect of a Computerized Decision Aid on the Development of Knowledge,”
Journal of Business and Psychology
18, no. 2 (2003): 157–174; and Holli McCall et al., “Use of Knowledge Management Systems and the Impact on the Acquisition of Explicit Knowledge,”
Journal of Information Systems
22, no. 2 (2008): 77–101.

20.
Amar Bhidé, “The Judgment Deficit,”
Harvard Business Review
88, no. 9 (September 2010): 44–53.

21.
Gordon Baxter and John Cartlidge, “Flying by the Seat of Their Pants: What Can High Frequency Trading Learn from Aviation?,” in G. Brat et al., eds.,
ATACCS-2013: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Application and Theory of Automation in Command and Control Systems
(New York: ACM, 2013), 64–73.

22.
Vivek Haldar, “Sharp Tools, Dull Minds,”
This Is the Blog of Vivek Haldar
, November 10, 2013, blog.vivekhaldar.com/post/66660163006/sharp-tools-dull-minds.

23.
Tim Adams, “Google and the Future of Search: Amit Singhal and the Knowledge Graph,”
Observer
, January 19, 2013.

24.
Betsy Sparrow et al., “Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips,”
Science
333, no. 6043 (August 5, 2011): 776–778. Another study suggests that simply knowing an experience has been photographed with a digital camera weakens a person’s memory of the experience: Linda A. Henkel, “Point-and-Shoot Memories: The Influence of Taking Photos on Memory for a Museum Tour,”
Psychological Science
, December 5, 2013, pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/12/04/0956797613504438.full.

25.
Mihai Nadin, “Information and Semiotic Processes: The Semiotics of Computation,”
Cybernetics and Human Knowing
18, nos. 1–2 (2011): 153–175.

26.
Gary Marcus,
Guitar Zero: The New Musician and the Science of Learning
(New York: Penguin, 2012), 52.

27.
For a thorough description of how the brain learns to read, see Maryanne Wolf,
Proust and the Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading Brain
(New York: HarperCollins, 2007), particularly 108–133.

28.
Hubert L. Dreyfus, “Intelligence without Representation—Merleau-Ponty’s Critique of Mental Representation,”
Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences
1 (2002): 367–383.

29.
Marcus,
Guitar Zero
, 103.

30.
David Z. Hambrick and Elizabeth J. Meinz, “Limits on the Predictive Power of Domain-Specific Experience and Knowledge in Skilled Performance,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science
20, no. 5 (2011): 275–279.

31.
K. Anders Ericsson et al., “The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance,”
Psychological Review
100, no. 3 (1993): 363–406.

32.
Nigel Warburton, “Robert Talisse on Pragmatism,”
Five Books
, September 18, 2013, fivebooks.com/interviews/robert-talisse-on-pragmatism.

33.
Jeanne Nakamura and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, “The Concept of Flow,” in C. R. Snyder and Shane J. Lopez, eds.,
Handbook of Positive Psychology
(Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2002), 90–91.

Interlude, with Dancing Mice

1.
Robert M. Yerkes,
The Dancing Mouse: A Study in Animal Behavior
(New York: Macmillan, 1907), vii–viii, 2–3.

2.
Ibid., vii.

3.
Robert M. Yerkes and John D. Dodson, “The Relation of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation,”
Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology
18 (1908): 459–482.

4.
Ibid.

5.
Mark S. Young and Neville A. Stanton, “Attention and Automation: New Perspectives on Mental Overload and Performance,”
Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science
3, no. 2 (2002): 178–194.

6.
Mark W. Scerbo, “Adaptive Automation,” in Raja Parasuraman and Matthew Rizzo, eds.,
Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 239–252.

Chapter Five: WHITE-COLLAR COMPUTER

1.
“RAND Study Says Computerizing Medical Records Could Save $81 Billion Annually and Improve the Quality of Medical Care,” RAND Corporation press release, September 14, 2005.

2.
Richard Hillestad et al., “Can Electronic Medical Record Systems Transform Health Care? Potential Health Benefits, Savings, and Costs,”
Health Affairs
24, no. 5 (2005): 1103–1117.

3.
Reed Abelson and Julie Creswell, “In Second Look, Few Savings from Digital Health Records,”
New York Times
, January 10, 2013.

4.
Jeanne Lambrew, “More than Half of Doctors Now Use Electronic Health Records Thanks to Administration Policies,”
The White House Blog
, May 24, 2013, whitehouse.gov/blog/2013/05/24/more-half-doctors-use-electronic-health-records-thanks-administration-policies.

5.
Arthur L. Kellermann and Spencer S. Jones, “What It Will Take to Achieve the As-Yet-Unfulfilled Promises of Health Information Technology,”
Health Affairs
32, no. 1 (2013): 63–68.

6.
Ashly D. Black et al., “The Impact of eHealth on the Quality and Safety of Health Care: A Systematic Overview,”
PLOS Medicine
8, no. 1 (2011), plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000387.