12
Hall et al.,
Like a Family
, pp. 115-120.
13
W. J. Cash,
The Mind of the South
(New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1941), p. 205.
14
Harriet L. Herring,
Passing of the Mill Village: Revolution in a Southern Institution
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1949), p. 26; Andrews,
The Men and the Mills
, p. 195. Hall offers a slightly higher figure: Drawing upon a congressional study, she says rents in 1908 averaged $3.57 per month, roughly 6 percent of workers' total monthly expenditures. See p. 126.
15
Valerie Quinney, “Farm to Mill: The First Generation,” in
Working Lives: The Southern Exposure History of Labor in the South
, ed. Marc S. Miller (New York: Pantheon, 1974), pp. 5-7.
16
Joel Williamson,
The Crucible of Race: Black-White Relations in the American South Since Emancipation
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 432-433. W. J. Cash notes that child labor was the norm: “At six, at seven, at eight years, by ten at the latest, the little boys and girls of the mill families went regularly to work.”
The Mind of the South
, p. 203.
17
Hall et al.,
Like a Family
, p. 130.
18
Anderson,
The Social Consequences
, p. 58-59; according to Hall et al., by 1910 most urban mills had converted to cheaper and more dependable electric power, but small-town and rural mills lagged behind. In the Carolinas, 75 percent of mills still ran on water or steam.
Like a Family
, p. 48.
19
Anderson,
The Social Consequences
, pp. 61-62; Andrews,
The Men and the Mills
, p. 99; “Cannon I,”
Fortune
, November 1933, p. 50.
20
Arthur-Cornett,
Remembering Kannapolis
, p. 41.
21
James A. Hodges,
New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941
(Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), p. 31.
22
Hodges,
New Deal Labor Policy
, pp. 29-30.
23
Andrews,
The Men and the Mills
, p. 80; Hall et al.,
Like a Family
, pp. 105-106, 186-194; Anderson,
The Social Consequences
, p. 60.
24
Hall et al.,
Like a Family
, pp. 197-219.
25
Jeremy Brecher,
Strike!
(Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, 1972), pp. 210- 211; Hodges,
New Deal Labor Policy
, p. 49; Hall et al.,
Like a Family
, pp. 290-294, 325, 329-332, 342; Arthur-Cornett,
Remembering Kannapolis
, pp. 45-47.
26
Brecher,
Strike!
pp. 212-217.
27
Ibid., pp. 218-219; Hall et al.,
Like a Family
, pp. 349-354.
28
Edward Levinson,
Labor on the March
(Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1938), pp. 239-240.
29
Margaret Crawford,
Building the Workingman's Paradise: The Design of American Company Towns
(London and New York: Verso, 1995), p. 194.
30
Herring,
Passing of the Mill Village
, pp. 8-11; Andrews,
The Men and the Mills
, pp. 197-199.
31
“Cannon II,”
Fortune
, November 1933, p. 141. The same issue of
Fortune
(pp. 131-134), however, reported that Charles Cannon, who also served as a director of the Federal Reserve branch in Charlotte and on the board of New York Life Insurance, was “the foremost figure in textiles” and that Cannon Mills “is the most secure if not the greatest textile company in the South.”
32
Arthur-Cornett,
Remembering Kannapolis
, p. 115; Anderson,
The Social Consequences
, p. 64;
Wall Street Journal
, April 29, 1969.
33
Wall Street Journal
, April 5, 1971.
34
Wall Street Journal
, April 29, 1969; Andrews,
The Men and the Mills
, p. 249;
Kannapolis: A Pictorial History
, pp. 146-147.
35
Wall Street Journal
, June 7, 1956; October 8, 1956; April 29, 1966. The
Journal
commented that, with four wage increases in less than two years, Cannon generally led the way in wages, and other textile companies followed that lead.
36
Wall Street Journal
, November 22, 1974; July 24, 1974. Further votes failed in the 1980s and 1990s, before the textile union's successor, UNITE, was victorious in 1999, becoming the bargaining representative for Pillowtex.
38
Kannapolis: A Pictorial History
, pp. 247-248, 275.
Chapter 5:The Magic City
1
Robert Lewis,
Chicago Made: Factory Networks in the Industrial Metropolis
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), pp. 48-49; Margaret Crawford,
Building the Workingman's Paradise: The Design of American Company Towns
(London: Verso, 1995), pp. 43-44; the steel man's quote appears in David Brody,
Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era
(New York: Harper & Row, 1969), p. 88; Eugene J. Buffington, “Making Cities for Workingmen,”
Harper's Weekly
, May 8, 1909, p. 15; Graham Romeyn Taylor,
Satellite Cities: A Study of Industrial Suburbs
(New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1915), p. 165. Taylor's book grew out of an article first published in
The Survey
. The magazine ran several pieces on steel towns as follow-ups to the Pittsburgh Survey, a social-scientific investigation of conditions in that town initiated by the Charity Organization Society of the City of New York and backed financially by the Russell Sage Foundation.
2
Ida M. Tarbell,
The Life of Elbert H. Gary: A Story of Steel
(New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1925), pp. 28-113, 150; Jean Strouse,
Morgan: American Financier
(New York: Random House, 1999), pp. 397-404, 445-447; Kenneth Warren,
Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), pp. 109-111.
3
Taylor,
Satellite Cities
, p. 10; Isaac James Quillen,
Industrial City: A History of Gary Indiana to 1929
(New York: Garland Publishing, 1986), p. 175.
4
William Serrin,
Homestead: The Glory and Tragedy of an American Steel Town
(New York: Times Books, 1992), pp. 33-36; Crawford,
Building the Workingman's Paradise
, pp. 68-69.
5
Tom Bell,
Out of This Furnace
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1976), pp. 122-123.
6
Paul Krause,
The Battle for Homestead 1880-1892
(Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992), pp.12-43; Serrin,
Homestead
, pp. 66-95.
7
Anne E. Mosher,
Capital's Utopia: Vandergrift, Pennsylvania 1855-1916
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), pp. 64-95, 113-123.
8
Buffington, “Making Cities for Workingmen,” p.16.
9
Mosher,
Capital's Utopia
, pp. 110-112, 141-149; Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 67, 173-174.
10
Buffington, “Making Cities for Workingmen,” p. 15; Raymond A. Mohl and Neil Betten,
Steel City: Urban and Ethnic Patterns in Gary, Indiana, 1906-1950
(New York and London: Holmes & Meier, 1986), pp. 12-14; Taylor,
Satellite Cities
, pp. 169-171, 188-189.
11
Mohl and Betten,
Steel City
, pp. 15-23; Taylor,
Satellite Cities
, pp. 17, 184- 195, 207; James B. Lane,
City of the Century: A History of Gary, Indiana
(Blooming-ton: Indiana University Press, 1978), pp. 43-44; Buffington, “Making Cities for Workingmen,” p. 17; Quillen,
Industrial City
, pp. 98-102, 117-119, 125-128, 145.
12
Lane,
City of the Century
, pp. 44-45, 47; Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, note, p. 124.
13
Taylor,
Satellite Cities
, pp. 165-166, 217-229; Quillen, pp. 152-163; advertisement reproduced in Crawford,
Building the Workingman's Paradise
, p. 44.
14
Taylor,
Satellite Cities
, pp. 237-243, 248-251.
15
Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, p. 112; Irving Bernstein,
Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1971), p. 475.
16
Mark Reutter,
Sparrows Point: Making Steelâthe Rise and Ruin of American Industrial Might
(New York: Summit Books, 1988), pp. 10, 22-34, 41-79, 87-115, 140-154; Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 208-213.
17
Stuart D. Brandes,
American Welfare Capitalism 1880-1940
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), pp. 28-29, 77.
18
Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 25, 89, 154; Brandes,
American Welfare Capitalism
, p. 83; Reutter,
Sparrows Point
, pp. 140-142.
19
Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 86, 96-111, 149, 162-177.
20
Ibid., pp. 69, 75, 184, 197, 201; Quillen,
Industrial City
, p. 266.
21
Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 191-193, 208-213, 226-229; Quillen,
Industrial City
, pp. 271-272.
22
Mohl and Betten,
Steel City
, pp. 31-42; Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 252, 258-262; Harvey O'Connor,
Steel-Dictator
(New York: John Day Co., 1935), pp. 102-103; Serrin,
Homestead
, pp. 149-156.
23
Quillen,
Industrial City
, pp. 388-395; Edward Greer,
Big Steel: Black Politics and Corporate Power in Gary, Indiana
(New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1979), pp. 81-82.
24
Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 270-274; O'Connor,
Steel-Dictator
, pp. 105-114.
25
Mohl and Betten,
Steel City
, pp. 6, 28; Brody,
Steelworkers in America
, pp. 266-267; Quillen,
Industrial City
, pp. 375-418.
26
Quillen,
Industrial City
, pp. 172, 462-489; Greer,
Big Steel: Black Politics and Corporate Power
, pp. 69, 83.
27
Warren,
Big Steel
, pp. 145-160, 166-167; O'Connor,
Steel-Dictator
, pp. 220- 224; Bernstein,
Turbulent Years
, pp. 458-474.
28
Warren,
Big Steel
, pp. 193-195, 223; Reutter,
Sparrows Point
, p. 397.
29
Greer,
Big Steel: Black Politics and Corporate Power
, pp. 86-88, 138; Serrin,
Homestead
, pp. 219-222; Mohl and Betten,
Steel City
, pp. 55-70. On Gary's innovative public education program see Randolph Bourne,
The Gary Schools
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916).
30
Sandra L. Barnes,
The Cost of Being Poor: A Comparative Study of Life in Poor Neighborhoods in Gary, Indiana
(Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005), p. 41; “Dead End Streets,”
The Guardian
, August 27, 1996, p. 22; Monica Davey,
“City's Bad Luck Takes Another Spin,”
New York Times
, November 30, 2003, p. 1; “Blueprint: Gary Indiana,”
Wall Street Journal
, May 7, 2008, p. C12; U.S. Steel 2007 Annual Report and Form 10-K at
www.uss.com/corp/proxy/documents/2007-annual-report.pdf
.
31
Warren,
Big Steel
, pp. xvii, 1-2.
Chapter 6: On the Road to the Consumer Economy
1
Edward Chase Kirkland,
Industry Comes of Age
(Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1967), p. 271; Lawrence B. Glickman, ed.,
Consumer Society in American History
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), p. 3; Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd,
Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture
(New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1929), pp. 81, 153; Lizabeth Cohen, “Encountering Mass Culture at the Grassroots: the Experience of Chicago Workers in the 1920s,” in Glickman,
Consumer Society in American History
, pp. 147-148.
2
Simon N. Patten,
The New Basis of Civilization
(London: Macmillan Co., 1907), pp. 14-16.
3
Lizabeth Cohen,
A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America
(New York: Random House, 2003), p. 195 and passim.
4
Daniel Yergin,
The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power
(New York: Free Press, 1991), pp. 66-79; Mody C. Boatright and William A. Owens,
Tales from the Derrick Floor: A People's History of the Oil Industry
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1970), pp. 60-62; Diana Davids Olien and Roger M. Olien,
Oil in Texas: The Gusher Age, 1895-1945
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), pp. 57- 67, 84; Roger M. Olien and Diana Davids Olien,
Oil Booms: Social Change in Five Texas Towns
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), pp. 6-9, 22-25, 45.
5
Robert M. Olien and Diana Davids Olien,
Life In the Oil Fields
(Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1986), pp. 2-6, 108-122; Olien and Olien,
Oil in Texas
, pp. 118-122, 138-147, 206; Olien and Olien,
Oil Booms
, pp. 46-48, 133-139.