Mind of the Raven: Investigations and Adventures With Wolf-Birds (48 page)

General reference:

Gwinner, E. “Über den Einfluss des Hungers und anderer Faktoren auf die Versteckaktivität des Kolkraben (
Corvus corax).” Vogelwarte
23: 1-4 (1965).

CHAPTER 23

For an examination of morality in animals:

de Waal, F.
Good Natured: The Origin of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals
. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1986).

General references:

Liu-Chih, L. “Bruterfolg als Funktion von Ökosystemtyp, Flächennutzung und Konkurrenz bei:
Corvus corax
.” Dissertation, Universitat Saarlaudes, Saarbücken, Germany, 1997.

Christensen, H., and T. Grünkorn. “Nesthilfe beim Kolkraben (
Corvus corax
L.) nachgewiesen.”
Corax
17: 66-67 (1997).

Ehrengruber, M. U., and H. R. Aeschbacher. “Fütternder Helfer an einem Nest des Kolkraben
Corvus corax.” Orn. Beob
. 90: 301-303 (1993).

For discussion of helpers at the nest:

Alcock, J.
Animal Behavior
, 6th ed. (pp. 569-575). (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, 1998).

For discussion of bird mobbing behavior:

Dawson, J. W. “Golden eagle mobbed while preying on common raven.”
Raptor Research
16: 136 (1982).

Heinrich, B.
One Man’s Owl
(Appendix). (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1987).

Other references

Clapp, R. B., M. K. Klimkiewicz, and A. W. Futcher. “Longevity records of North American birds: Columbidae through Paridae.”
J. Field Orn
. 54: 123-137 (1993).

Nogales, M. “High density and distribution patterns of a raven
Corvus corax
population on an oceanic island (El Hierro, Canary Islands).”
Journal of Avian Biol
. 25: 80-84 (1994).

Ryves, B. H.
Bird Life in Cornwall
. (London: Collins, 1948).

CHAPTER 24

For studies on animal play:

Beckoff, M., and J. A. Byers (eds.).
Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological Aspects
. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).

Ficken, M. S. 1977. “Avian play.”
The Auk
94: 537-582 (1997).

For studies on raven play:

Drack, G. “Akitivitätsmuster und Spiel Freilebender Kolkraben.” (Dissertation, Univ. Salzburg, Austria, 1994).

Gwinner, E. “Über einige Bewegungsspiale des Kolkraben (
Corvus corax
L.)”
Z. Tierpsychol
. 23: 28-36 (1996).

Heinrich, B., and R. Smolker. “Raven Play.” In
Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative, and Ecological Aspects
. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).

CHAPTER 25

General reference:

Heinrich, B. “Planning to facilitate caching: Possible suet cutting by a raven.”
Wilson Bull
. (In press).

CHAPTER 26

Note:
String-pulling as an experimental method for examining insight has a long history. The first results (with small songbirds) were thought to suggest insight, but subsequent studies disproved these claims. As a result, the whole area of inquiry was abandoned before animals that
could
solve the puzzle were examined. The following are related publications:

Altevogt, R. “Über das ‘Schöpfen’ einiger Vogelarten.”
Behavior
6: 147-152 (1953).

Bierens de Haan, J. A. “Der Stieglitz als Schöpfer.”
J. Ornithol
. 1: 22 (1933).

Dücker, G., and B. Rensch. “The solution of patterned string problems by birds.”
Behavior
62: 164-173 (1977).

Heinrich, B. “An experimental investigation of insight in common ravens (
Corvus corax).” The Auk
112: 994-1003 (1995).

Heinrich, B. “Detecting insight in common ravens
Corrus corax
.” In C. Heyes and L. Huber (eds.),
Evolution of Cognition
. Boston: MIT Press (in press).

Thorpe, W. H. “A type of insight learning in birds.”
Br. Birds
37: 29-31 91943).

Tolman, E. C. “The acquisition of string-pulling by rats—Conditioned response or sign-gestalt?”
Psychol. Rev
. 44: 195-211 (1937).

Vince, M. A. “String-pulling in birds. II. Differences related to age in Greenfinches, Chaffinches and canaries.”
Anim. Behav
. 6: 53-59 (1958).

Vince, M. A. “‘String-pulling’ in birds. III. The successful response in Greenfinches and canaries.”
Behaviour
17: 103-129 (1961).

CHAPTER 27

General references:

Portman, Adolphe. “Etudes sur la cérébralization chez les oiseaux.”
Alauda
14: 2-20 (1946) and
Alauda
15: 1-15 and 15: 161-171 (1947).

Rehkämper, G., H. D. Frahm, and K. Zillen. “Quantitative development of brain and brain structures in birds (Galliformes and Passeriformes) compared to that of mammals (Insectivora and Primates).”
Brain Behav. Evol
. 37: 125-143 (1991).

For review of forebrain size in birds correlated to feeding innovations:

Lefebvre, L., P. Whittle, E. Lascaris, and A. Finkelstein. “Feeding innovations and forebrain size in birds.”
Animal Behaviour
53: 549-560 (1997).

For reviews on avian hippocampus growth and development in relation to food-storing experience:

Clayton, N. S. “Memory and hippocampus in food-storing birds: A comparative approach.”
Neuropharmacology
37: 441-452 (1998).

Krebs, J. R., N. S. Clayton, S. D. Healy, D. A. Cristol, S. W. Patel, and A. R. Jolliffe. “The ecology of the brain: Food—storing and the hippocampus.”
Ibis
138: 34-46 (1996).

General references:

Armstrong, E. “Relative brain size and metabolism in mammals.”
Science
220: 1302-1304 (1983).

Clutton-Brock, T. H., and P. H. Harvey. “Primates, brains and ecology.”
J. Zool. Lond
. 190: 309-323 (1980).

Gittleman, J. L. “Carnivore brain size, behavioral ecology, phylogeny.”
J. Mammology
67: 23-36 (1986).

Gould, J. L., and C. G. Gould.
The Animal Mind
. (New York and Oxford: W. H. Freeman & Co., 1994).

Harvey, P. H., and J. R. Krebs. “Comparing brains.”
Science
249: 140-146 (1992).

Pearson, R.
The Avian Brain
. (London: Academic Press, 1972).

Ridgway, S. H. “Physiological observation on Dolphin Brains” (pp. 31-59). In
Dolphins, Cognition and Behavior: A Comparative Approach
, R. J. Schuterman, J. A. Thomas, and F. G. Woods, eds. (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., 1986).

Roberts, W. A.
Principles of Animal Cognition
. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998).

CHAPTER 28

Notes:
The End of Neuroscience
by John Horgan (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996) presents various divergent perspectives of consciousness: consciousness as an illusion, something explained by laws of physics, a phenomenon independent of physical substrate, as a manifestation of short-term memory, oscillation of neural firing, and other theories.

Special issues of
Scientific American
magazine have been devoted to consciousness, and in them are references to some forty books on the topic. The issues are titled “Mind and Brain” (September 1992), “The Puzzle of Consciousness” (December 1995), and “Exploring Intelligence” (Winter 1998).

For added perspectives, see E. O. Wilson in
Conciliance
(New York: Knopf, 1998), where the topic is discussed and a list of some twenty additional books is give, and Donald R. Griffin, “From cognition to consciousness,” a review in
Anim. Cogn
. 1: 3-16 (1998).

General references:

Balda, R. P., I. M. Pepperberg, and A. C. Kamil (eds.)
Animal Cognition in Nature
. (New York: Academic Press, 1998).

Boars, B. J.
In the Theater of Consciousness: The Workplace of the Mind
. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1997).

Calvin, W. H.
How Brains Think: Evolving Intelligence, Then and Now
. (New York: HarperCollins, 1996).

Chalmers, D. J.
The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory
. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996).

Dennett, D. C.
Consciousness Explained
. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991).

Dickinson A., and B. Ballentine. “Motivational control of goal-directed action.”
Animal Learning and Behavior
22: 1-18 (1994).

Dukas, R. (ed.).
Cognitive Ecology
. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

Gardiner, H.
Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
. (New York: HarperCollins, 1983).

MacPhail, E. M.
Brain and Intelligence in Vertebrates
. (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1982).

MacPhail, E. M. “The search for a mental Rubicon.” In C. Heyes and L. Huber (eds.),
Evolution of Cognition
. Boston: MIT Press (in press).

Shettleworth, S. J.
Cognition, Evolution, and Behavior
. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

Wasserman, E. A. “Comments on animal thinking.”
Amer. Scientist
73: 6 (1985).

Note:
The opinions I have expressed in this book undoubtedly were influenced by many of the above sources.

Adams, Bill,

Adams, Rod and Amy,

Adoption, egg color and, parasite birds and, by ravens,

Aeschbacher, Hans-Rudolf,

African white-necked ravens,

Aggression, breeding and, chase, food, neighboring ravens and, strangers and, testosterone and,

Alexander, Cedric,

Allen, Durward,

Allopreening.
See
Preening

Anchorage, Alaska,

Angle, Phil,

Animal Minds
(Griffin),

Athabascan Indians,

Avery, Michael L.,

Baffin Island,

Baja, Mexico,

Barash, David P.,

Barnaby Rudge
(Dickens),

Bathing, in captivity,

Bears, various types, and ravens,

Belmonte, Lisa,

Berman, David L.,

Bern, Switzerland,

Body posture and feather erection, alert and confident, female knocking and display, macho display, power display of, precopulatory display, submissive behaviors,

Booma, Glenn,

Brain and brain volume, bird skull, comparison, diet and, encephalization, primates, size, what determines, skull size, raven, (chart); tissue,

Brain and Intelligence in Vertebrates
(Macphail),

Brandenburg, Jim,

Breeding: age, attempts, per year, 53; courting display, pairs, Goliath and Whitefeather, Houdi and Lefty, males, testosterone and aggression, New England ravens, as privilege of select few, schedule, passeriformes, success of, low,

Britain, population ecology study of ravens,

Brother Wolf
(Brandenburg),

Buchwaldt, von, Christian,

Bumblebees,

Busch, Eric,

Caching, experiments, recovery of, false, location of, making, process of, stealing from, tracking objects and,

California condor-raven relationship,

Callahan, Charles,

Callahan, Duane,

Canadian Wolf Research Center,

Cape Pierce, Alaska,

Captured ravens, banding, Germany, behavior, freeze-banding, method of capture, long-handled smelt net, number tagged at Maine study site, pair, caught 1989, plastic tags, released to wild, sightings of tagged, tracking by radio transmitter, trapping,
See also
Raising and keeping ravens in captivity

Caribou,

Chadwick, Dough,

Cheney, Dorothy, xvi

Chester, Bill,

Chicks.
See
Fledgling; Nestlings

Christensen, Hans,

Churchill, Manitoba,

Clowers, Gary,

Coalitions,
See also
Pairings and partnerships; Social behavior

Cognitive maps,

Cold Comfort: My Love Affair with the Arctic
(Rowley),

Color (feathers), See also
Eggs; Physical characteristics of ravens

Communication: communal roost as information center, forms of, among ravens, human-raven, recruitment to food finds, roosting of groups, coordinated departures,
See also
Dominance hierarchy; Flight; Vocalization (calls and songs)

Connor, Eileen,

Conover, Garrett,

Consciousness, linguistic ability and, neural basis, physical basis, squirrel-proof feeder and,

Corvids,

Corvus corax
, xiv,

Coyote-raven interactions,

Crow (
Corvus brachyrhynchos
), xiv,

Curiosity of ravens, attraction to round objects, and least tern problem, 71-72; corvids, as characteristic, damage done by, and, objects that attract,
See also
Learning

Dahl, Kristi,

Dalton, Jr., George,

Davis, Josina,

Death, ravens associated with,

Decker, David G.,

Deer, as raven food and nesting materials,

Denali Park, Alaska,

Dog-raven interaction,

Dominance heirarchy, alpha or top birds, bathing and, Blue and Red partnership, submissive benefiting from dominant bird, body size and, changes in, differential treatment and, dog and submissive bird, dominant bird displays, dominants, feeding and, hormones and, juveniles, sex differences in displays, submissives and behaviors, vocalizations and,

Drury, John,

Eagles, alarm and recognition by ravens, feeding and ravens,
raven-raptor association, ravens appearance at kills by, raven tail-pulling and harassment of,

Ecology and Evolution of Acoustic Communication in Birds
(Kroodsman and Miller),

Eggs: color, experiment, egg recognition by ravens, laying process, number laid, recognition of, size,

Ehrengruber, Markus,

Eisley, Loren, xiii

Emlen, John and Stephen, xvii

Emotions, behavior and, ravens,

End of Neuroscience, The
(Horgan),

Enggist-Düblin, Peter,

Eskimo hunters and ravens, dogs and,

Farmington, Maine,

Farrington, Adam,

Fears, carcasses, neophobia (of new things), objects (broom, gun, long dress), phantom movements, predators, quantity or configuration, shots, sounds of, strangers, unexpected events,

Feather erection.
See
Body posture and feather erection

Female raven: eggs by, knocking and display, nesting and incubating, precopulatory display,

Fitz, Gerald,

Fledglings,

Flight, alarm, attention-getting, dipping of wings, group or “kettle,” high circling or soaring, maiden, pairs, play, sky dancing,

Folklore.
See
Myth

Food: appearance that attracts, attraction to new, role of taste, feeding behaviors, feeding contact with dangerous birds, evolution and, defending, dietary needs of young ravens, diet, experiment to find out components of ravens in wild, finds of, advertising, xiii; garbage dumps, object-dropping, omnivores and opportunists, ravens as, preferences, in captivity, raven use of intermediaries for food, roadkills, wild ravens and, supply, and nest spacing, wandering of ravens, in search of,
See also
Caching; Hunting; Recruitment

Fowles, John,

Friedman, Lori,

Friendships,
See also
Pairing and partnerships

Frisch, von, Karl, xvi

Geographic orientation and migration of birds, xvii

Germany: attacks on cattle by ravens, captive ravens in, courting birds, helper ravens, hunting by ravens in, Jägers, antiraven and corvid position, study of home territory in, Zehlendorf dump,

Goethe, Johannes,

Goodall, Jane, xvi

Goodhue, Terry,

Griffin, Donald, xvi,

Grizzly Years
(Peacock),

Groups of ravens, feeding habits and, flocks vs., independent or membership, individual meat stacking vs., interest of group over individual,
See also
Social behavior

Grünkorn, Thomas,

Gussow, Alan,

Gwinner, Eberhard,

Hall, Tim,

Handicap Principle,

Hannum, Ginny,

Hansen, Hilmar,

Harrington, Fred,

Hatch, David,

Hawk, sharp-shinned,

Heinrich, Eliot,

Heinrich, Rachel,

Heinrich, Stuart,

Helpers,

Herrenstein, Richard, xvii

Hinnerichs, Carsten,

Honeyguide (
Indicator indicator
),

Horgan, John,

Hormones and raven behavior,

Humans, association with, author, with Houdi, Goliath, Fuzz, Lefty, Whitefeather, and others, author’s first tame, xviii, Callahan, Duane, and Darwin, Callahan, Duane and Susan Marfield, and Merlin, Dalton, Jr., George, and bear-raven incident, fictional, Dickens’s Grip, Hannum, Ginny, and cougar incident, historic, xiv, xix, hunting companions, Lorenz, Konrad, and raven, Roa, Maine family and Isaak, Morkramer, Klaus, and Jakob, trust and,

Hunt, Gavin, xvii

Hunting, aerial attacks, attacks on large mammals, veracity of, bills used in, feigning injury, human-raven association, prey of ravens, various, symbiotic relationships with predators, teamwork and partnerships, training and learning, wing-dipping behavior and hunters,

Imprinting,

Incubation of eggs/young, covering of eggs,

Individual recognition.
See
Recognition

Intelligence, brain and brain volume, caching behavior, consciousness, donut tests, food dunking, geometrical/spatial perceptions/stacking, lies, memory, mental projection/visualization, object-dropping behavior, planning, play and, puzzle solving and tool use, squirrel-proof feeder and, testing raven,

Into Africa
(Packer), xiv

Intolerance,

Iqaluit, Research Center,
See also
Baffin Island

Island of Werda,

Isle Royale, Lake Superior,

James, Fran,

Jewelry and baubles, raven attraction to,

Juneau, Alaska, ravens and Easter egg hunt,

Kammer, Ann E.,

Kaye, Delia,

Keene, Gary,

Kestrels,

Kevan, Peter,

Knight, Ted,

Knittle, C. Edward,

Koehler, Otto,

Köhler, Wolfgang, xvi

Kramer, Gustav, xvii,

Kumlien, Ludwig,

Landis, Bob,

Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler’s Ninth Symphony
(Thomas),

Lawrence, Bob,

Learning, calling and vocalizations, experiment of author and, exposure to stimuli, food discrimination, imprinting, innate versus acquired, parent teaching of young, precocial birds versus altricial birds, string-pulling tests, variation between species,
See also
Hunting

Least tern, eggs and ravens,

Leopold, Aldo,

Levin, Ted,

Libby, Matt,

Lidstone, David,

Lies and lying behavior, false caches,

Lindsey, Scott,

Linz, George M.,

Living Desert Museum,

Lo Liu-Chih,

Looft, Volker,

Lorenz, Konrad, raven, Roa,

Machiavellian Intelligence,

Macphail, Euan M.,

Magpies,

Maine: area of, deer population, diet of ravens in, Hills Pond raven family, hunting by ravens in, moose hunt, poacher arrests and ravens, raven calls in, ravens, Seal Island ravens, tracking project,

Majka, Mary,

Male ravens: macho display, display of, territory claim,

Marfield, Susan,

Martens, Hans-Dieter,

Marzluff, John,

Mate-bonding.
See
Mating; Pairing and Partnerships

Mating, extra-pair, group displays,
See also
Breeding; Pairing and partnerships

McEneaney, Terry,

McGowan, Kevin,

McNulty, Dan,

Mech, L. David,

Melcher, Paul,

Miller, Michael E.,

Mirror, experiment in raven self-recognition,

Morals,

Moran, John R.,

Moretown, Vermont,

Morkramer, Anatol,

Morkramer, Klaus and raven, Jakob,

Mortality of young ravens, Blackjack, marked wild raven survival rates,

Most, Kim,

Mutes (liquid fecal matter),

Myth, ravens in, death, ravens associated with, divining powers, hunting and, Odin and ravens,