Read Male Sex Work and Society Online
Authors: Unknown
Tags: #Psychology/Human Sexuality, #Social Science/Gay Studies, #SOC012000, #PSY016000
Male Sex Work and Society (30 page)
2
Editor’s note: The author is using the term “the market” to represent male-on-male escort sex work in the United States. It is acknowledged male sex worker markets are multiple, complex, and diverse both within and between cultures.
3
These older works include Ginsburg (1967), Hoffman (1972), Boyer (1989), Salamon (1989), McNamara (1994), and Pettiway (1996).
4
Editor’s note: Reference to “the market” is limited to male-on-male escort sex work in the United States.
5
Editor’s note: Within the intersecting discourses of sex, gender, and power, heterosexuality holds a privileged position as the norm against which all other forms of sexuality are measured. The heterosexual norm of male and female coupling positions males above females via ideals of masculinity. Drawing on Gramsci’s theory of hegemony, Connell adopts the term “hegemonic masculinity” to render visible the position of men in the gender order in society. She argues that the balancing of coercion and consent between males and females in heterosexual society underpins social relations privileging and advantaging males at the expense of females. Hegemonic masculinity is thus a gender theory rendering visible this privileging of male cultures on the basis of masculinity and the subordination of female cultures. Within gay theories, hegemonic masculinity is understood as the reappropriation of this between genders ideology within genders. That is, the notion of the masculine male dominating and subordinating the feminine female is reproduced between male-on-male relationships with one male performing the masculine subjectivity and the other, the feminine, and thus the masculine male dominates and subordinates the feminine male. For further information regarding these theories, see Gramsci (1971), Bates (1975), Connell (1987, 1992, 1995), and Connell and Messerschmidt (2005).
6
Editor’s note: Counter-hegemony is understood as the practice of rejecting or attempting to dismantle the concept of hegemony. It is linked to gay theory on the premise that relations within the same gender must by very definition run counter to notions of hegemony, especially hegemonic masculinity. Gay theorists like Connell argue that gay male relationships are not by design counter-hegemonic, as hegemonic masculine practices often underpin male same-sex relations (see note 5 above).
7
Before providing an overview of male sex work among men who advertise online in the U.S., two caveats should be noted. First, I concentrate on male-on-male escorts as opposed to street workers. Second, I focus on how the market for male-on-male escort sex work functions and the implications one can draw from that knowledge in forming testable hypotheses, such as that posited by intersectionality theory.
8
In the past, male prostitution also took the form of transvestite sex work, and male brothels were not uncommon (Chauncey, 1994). Dorais (2005) shows that male brothels have survived in other cultures. Friedman (2003) shows that male and transsexual street sex workers do not work in the same locations in postwar U.S.
9
The social stigma of male prostitution is assumed to be lower than that for female prostitution (West, 1993), but such claims are subject to criticism (Chauncey, 1994; Dorais, 2005; Friedman, 2003). The claim that male prostitutes face less social stigma implicitly conditions on sexual orientation, which itself is stigmatizing.
10
Although most gay-related publications continue to have small sections devoted to male escorts, the size of these sections has decreased. The growth of online escorting has largely eliminated a category of male sex workers—“bar boys”—who would congregate in known “hustler bars” to meet potential clients (Luckenbill, 1986; Parsons, Koken, & Bimbi, 2004).
Although most gay-related publications continue to have small sections devoted to male escorts, the size of these sections has decreased. The growth of online escorting has largely eliminated a category of male sex workers—“bar boys”—who would congregate in known “hustler bars” to meet potential clients (Luckenbill, 1986; Parsons, Koken, & Bimbi, 2004).
11
Alternatively, Collins (2004) emphasizes economic factors as central to location considerations.
Alternatively, Collins (2004) emphasizes economic factors as central to location considerations.
12
Many escort advertisements state that escorts have specialties in “discretion” and in serving married men.
Many escort advertisements state that escorts have specialties in “discretion” and in serving married men.
13
Sociologists such as Hacker (1957) and Weinberg and Williams (1974) noted conflicts within masculinities before the theory of hegemonic masculinity was developed.
Sociologists such as Hacker (1957) and Weinberg and Williams (1974) noted conflicts within masculinities before the theory of hegemonic masculinity was developed.
14
Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) express doubts about this hybrid; however, they concede that hegemonic masculinity could be informed by and inform gay masculinities.
Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) express doubts about this hybrid; however, they concede that hegemonic masculinity could be informed by and inform gay masculinities.
15
Male escorts’ advertisements commonly note their “ruggedness” or “manliness” and the “refinement” of their “generous gentlemen” clients.
Male escorts’ advertisements commonly note their “ruggedness” or “manliness” and the “refinement” of their “generous gentlemen” clients.
16
In American gay society, men may not only be tops, bottoms, or versatile, but also “versatile tops” and “versatile bottoms.” The meaning of such terms is the distinction between one man who would rarely or never partake in an activity (a top would never perform as a bottom and vice versa), and a man who occasionally partakes in an activity (a versatile top would occasionally bottom and vice versa). These terms are well established in American gay society (Sadownick, 1996).
In American gay society, men may not only be tops, bottoms, or versatile, but also “versatile tops” and “versatile bottoms.” The meaning of such terms is the distinction between one man who would rarely or never partake in an activity (a top would never perform as a bottom and vice versa), and a man who occasionally partakes in an activity (a versatile top would occasionally bottom and vice versa). These terms are well established in American gay society (Sadownick, 1996).
17
The chosen data source contains more than 1,930 unique advertisements; the next largest competitor contains fewer than 1,500 (see
table 5.1
). Full description of the data and all statistical code for analysis are available from the author by e-mail request.
The chosen data source contains more than 1,930 unique advertisements; the next largest competitor contains fewer than 1,500 (see
table 5.1
). Full description of the data and all statistical code for analysis are available from the author by e-mail request.
18
Data were collected from January 2008 to May 2008. All escorts advertising on site X were included in the sample. Each escort has a page specific to him, and the following information was taken from each: user ID (to protect against double counting); user name; services provided (in order to analyze service pricing); contact information; locality; and personal and physical characteristics (such as age, height, weight, ethnicity, hair color, etc.). The texts of each escort were analyzed for indications of sexual behavior such as “top,” “bottom,” “versatile,” and “safe,” etc. For full details of this data collection process, refer to Logan (2010) or contact the author directly.
Data were collected from January 2008 to May 2008. All escorts advertising on site X were included in the sample. Each escort has a page specific to him, and the following information was taken from each: user ID (to protect against double counting); user name; services provided (in order to analyze service pricing); contact information; locality; and personal and physical characteristics (such as age, height, weight, ethnicity, hair color, etc.). The texts of each escort were analyzed for indications of sexual behavior such as “top,” “bottom,” “versatile,” and “safe,” etc. For full details of this data collection process, refer to Logan (2010) or contact the author directly.
19
Advertisements were manually inspected to classify behavior claims in the texts.
Advertisements were manually inspected to classify behavior claims in the texts.
20
See Logan and Shah (2009) for more on the role of pictures in the male escort market.
See Logan and Shah (2009) for more on the role of pictures in the male escort market.
21
“Versatile” escorts often describe themselves as versatile tops or versatile bottoms; this denotes a preference for one activity but a willingness to participate in the other. Versatile tops and versatile bottoms have been coded as “versatile.”
“Versatile” escorts often describe themselves as versatile tops or versatile bottoms; this denotes a preference for one activity but a willingness to participate in the other. Versatile tops and versatile bottoms have been coded as “versatile.”
22
Rentboy and
Male Escort Review
were accessed for this data on January 25, 2009. Escorts could not be identified on
Male Escort Review t
o enable cross-comparison between this website and site X.
Rentboy and
Male Escort Review
were accessed for this data on January 25, 2009. Escorts could not be identified on
Male Escort Review t
o enable cross-comparison between this website and site X.
23
Economists have noted problems with some of the assumptions underlying the hedonic empirical approach. For example, Rosen (1974) assumes that the market for the good or service in question is perfectly competitive and that the range of products is approximately continuous. Yet many markets are not perfectly competitive, and even fewer have a continuum of goods (which requires a large variety of products of the same type in the market). Rosen also assumes that all product attributes will be observed by market participants; this, too, is not true for some goods, particularly escort services. For these reasons, some object to the hedonic approach and its interpretation (Bartik, 1987; Brown & Rosen, 1982; Epple, 1987). Fortunately, recent advances in applied econometrics show that the hedonic approach used here can uncover implicit prices of characteristics in markets that are not perfectly competitive, where there is not a continuum of goods, and where all product characteristics are not observed (Bajari & Benkard, 2005). In short, one can estimate implicit prices in this market without making the rigid market assumptions that have been problematic in the literature. For more detail about hedonic regression, see the published full version of this paper (Logan, 2010).
Economists have noted problems with some of the assumptions underlying the hedonic empirical approach. For example, Rosen (1974) assumes that the market for the good or service in question is perfectly competitive and that the range of products is approximately continuous. Yet many markets are not perfectly competitive, and even fewer have a continuum of goods (which requires a large variety of products of the same type in the market). Rosen also assumes that all product attributes will be observed by market participants; this, too, is not true for some goods, particularly escort services. For these reasons, some object to the hedonic approach and its interpretation (Bartik, 1987; Brown & Rosen, 1982; Epple, 1987). Fortunately, recent advances in applied econometrics show that the hedonic approach used here can uncover implicit prices of characteristics in markets that are not perfectly competitive, where there is not a continuum of goods, and where all product characteristics are not observed (Bajari & Benkard, 2005). In short, one can estimate implicit prices in this market without making the rigid market assumptions that have been problematic in the literature. For more detail about hedonic regression, see the published full version of this paper (Logan, 2010).
In the analysis I have controlled for an escort’s location because price may vary with geography, and also because specific locations may have more or fewer competitors (peers), which can exert an independent effect on prices in a particular market. In order to establish the validity of the prices used, errors, or selection bias within the results has been addressed in the full version paper published in
American Sociological Review
. The correlation of advertised prices with actual transaction prices is quite high (r = .89) (see Logan & Shah, 2009). Although the vast majority of escorts post prices (more than 85 percent), not all do so. To address this potential selection issue, I estimated probit models where the dependent variable is whether an escort posted a price (see table 3 in the full published version). I found there is no relationship between the information in an escort’s advertisement (e.g., ethnicity or sexual position) and the decision to post prices. Given these results, I am reasonably confident that the price measure is an accurate measure of the prices actually paid in transactions.
American Sociological Review
. The correlation of advertised prices with actual transaction prices is quite high (r = .89) (see Logan & Shah, 2009). Although the vast majority of escorts post prices (more than 85 percent), not all do so. To address this potential selection issue, I estimated probit models where the dependent variable is whether an escort posted a price (see table 3 in the full published version). I found there is no relationship between the information in an escort’s advertisement (e.g., ethnicity or sexual position) and the decision to post prices. Given these results, I am reasonably confident that the price measure is an accurate measure of the prices actually paid in transactions.
24
For comparison purposes, the cities shown in
table 5.1
have been included in
table 5.3
. Also included is the rank and size of the populations of each metropolitan statistical area (MSA), as well as the Gay Concentration Index (GCI) developed by Black and colleagues (Black, Sanders, & Taylor, 2007) to compare the location of escorts with gay male location patterns. The GCI counts the proportion of male same-sex households in a given MSA and divides it by the national average. Cities with GCI values greater than 1 have larger shares of male same-sex households in their MSA than the national average. Given that partnership rates are lower for gay men than for heterosexuals (Carpenter & Gates, 2008), it is likely that the index understates the concentration of gay men in specific urban areas. While one might argue that single self-identified gay men locate in substantially different MSAs than do partnered gay men, this is unlikely because MSAs encompass an entire metropolitan area.
For comparison purposes, the cities shown in
table 5.1
have been included in
table 5.3
. Also included is the rank and size of the populations of each metropolitan statistical area (MSA), as well as the Gay Concentration Index (GCI) developed by Black and colleagues (Black, Sanders, & Taylor, 2007) to compare the location of escorts with gay male location patterns. The GCI counts the proportion of male same-sex households in a given MSA and divides it by the national average. Cities with GCI values greater than 1 have larger shares of male same-sex households in their MSA than the national average. Given that partnership rates are lower for gay men than for heterosexuals (Carpenter & Gates, 2008), it is likely that the index understates the concentration of gay men in specific urban areas. While one might argue that single self-identified gay men locate in substantially different MSAs than do partnered gay men, this is unlikely because MSAs encompass an entire metropolitan area.
25
This calculation assumes that escorts see 25 clients per month.
This calculation assumes that escorts see 25 clients per month.
26
These results are robust to the inclusion of age-squared and when substituting body mass index (BMI) for height and weight.
These results are robust to the inclusion of age-squared and when substituting body mass index (BMI) for height and weight.
27
Because the specification is semi-logarithmic, the percentage change of a dichotomous indicator is approximated by exp(
b
) – 1, where
b
is the coefficient in the regression (Halvorsen & Palmquist, 1980).
Because the specification is semi-logarithmic, the percentage change of a dichotomous indicator is approximated by exp(
b
) – 1, where
b
is the coefficient in the regression (Halvorsen & Palmquist, 1980).
28
The price differential is calculated as exp(
Top
)–exp(
Bottom
).
The price differential is calculated as exp(
Top
)–exp(
Bottom
).
29
There are caveats to my interpretation of the correlation of safe sex with higher prices in the male escort market. It could be that clients who desire unsafe sex may desire unsafe sex with escorts who are less likely to participate in unsafe sex generally and may reward them for that.
There are caveats to my interpretation of the correlation of safe sex with higher prices in the male escort market. It could be that clients who desire unsafe sex may desire unsafe sex with escorts who are less likely to participate in unsafe sex generally and may reward them for that.
30
See the online supplement (
http://asr.sagepub.com/supplemental
) for a fuller delineation of the biological hypothesis.
See the online supplement (
http://asr.sagepub.com/supplemental
) for a fuller delineation of the biological hypothesis.
31
See note 28.
See note 28.
_________________
Note:
Figures quoted are for the number of escorts by locality for site X and the number of advertisements for Rentboy and
Male Escort Review
. The last column shows the number of escorts listed on site X also identified on Rentboy. These data indicate that 55 of the 69 escorts advertising on Rentboy were also advertising on site X, thus demonstrating the appropriateness of site X as the primary data source for this study.
22
Figures quoted are for the number of escorts by locality for site X and the number of advertisements for Rentboy and
Male Escort Review
. The last column shows the number of escorts listed on site X also identified on Rentboy. These data indicate that 55 of the 69 escorts advertising on Rentboy were also advertising on site X, thus demonstrating the appropriateness of site X as the primary data source for this study.
22
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