Handbook on Sexual Violence (24 page)

Source
: Walker
et al
. (2009)

Table
4.4 shows the police-recorded crime statistics for exploitation of prostitution, abduction of a female (includes forced marriage), trafficking for sexual exploitation and female genital mutilation (FGM) (unfortunately the category of FGM and poisoning is not disaggregated).

Table 4.4
Police-recorded crime statistics on specific forms of violence 2002/03–2008/09, England and Wales

Source
: Home Office Recorded Crime Statistics 2002/03–2008/09

Reports on the extent of sexual violence by smaller studies

Data on specific forms of sexual violence, such as forced marriage and trafficking, draw on research estimates; there is no national survey data or full administrative data to collect or assess (HM Government 2009a). Instead, qualitative evidence and reports published by the voluntary sector, national and international governmental reports, and academic research are the main sources of evidence in this area. In general, there is an agreement among academics and within the Home Office that there is no reliable or commonly accepted data on the number of incidents of forced marriage, female genital mutilation (FGM) or trafficking (HM Government 2009a; Kelly and Regan 2000).

The majority of cases of forced marriage reported to date in the UK involve South Asian families (HM Government 2008; Force Marriage Unit no year). However, forced marriage is not solely a South Asian problem. There have been cases involving families from East Asia, the Middle East, Europe and

Africa. In 2008, over 1,600 incidents of suspected forced marriage were reported to the Forced Marriage Unit (FMU) (see Table 4.7). In 2009, the FMU gave advice or support on 1,682 cases. More women than men seek support or advice from the FMU: 86 per cent of the cases involved females and 14 per cent involved males (FCO 2010). The number of annual forced marriage cases dealt with by the FMU ranges from 250 to 300. In total, 1,600 annual cases are reported to the FMU (see Table
4.7). Research shows that this number does not reflect the number of actual annual cases of forced marriage; an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 cases are reported by Kazimirski
et al
. (2009) and DCSF (2009). An estimate of the national prevalence by civil society organisation Karma Nirvana and the Forced Marriage Unit also suggests that there are between 5,000 and 8,000 cases of forced marriages in England and Wales each year (see Table
4.7). The estimate is based on the number of forced marriage cases encountered by local organisations within ten local authorities (FMU no year; HM Government 2009c). Civil society organisation Women’s Aid reported 194 phone calls regarding forced marriage in 2007 (Women’s Aid website 2007).

Data on the actual number of women refugees fleeing from forced marriage are not available from any official survey, although Women’s Aid reports 870 refugee women fleeing from forced marriage annually (Women’s Aid 2007). Thirty five cases of forced marriage were prosecuted over a nine-month period in four CPS areas (CPS 2008). All defendants were male and Asian, most were spouse or ex-spouse (all were spouse or ex-spouse when there was only one defendant). Victims were equally likely to be male as female (CPS 2008).

Estimates on female genital mutilation (FGM) are equally varied (see Table
4.7). For example, estimates of the total prevalence of FGM in England and Wales range from 66,000 (Home Office 2009c) to 273,500 (Dorkenoo
et al
. 2007). The estimated number of girls under 15 at risk of FGM ranges from 16,000 (End Violence Against Women (EVAW) 2007) to 240,000 (Government Equalities Office (GEO) no date). In between those numbers, Dorkenoo
et al
. (2007) estimate that 22,000 girls under the age of 15 are at risk of becoming victims of FGM. The data are thus very variable. Some suggestions as to why this is the case, and why the estimates differ, include: the use of different sample sizes; the inclusion of more countries practising FGM in some studies; and whether or not second generation immigrants are included in the sample. Dorkenoo
et al
. apply a method where they: 1) identify countries in which FGM is practised and from which there is considerable migration to England and Wales; 2) identify published data on the prevalence of FGM in those countries; 3) apply that data to the Census and birth registration data for England and Wales to estimate the number of FGM cases. Kwateng-Kluvitse (2004), whose estimation of the total prevalence of FGM is similar to Dorkenoo
et al
., derives the numbers by applying the World Health Organisation’s estimates of the prevalence of FGM figures in FGM practising countries to estimates of numbers of women reporting FGM from six of these countries of origin. Studies are, according to Dorkenoo
et al
., producing underestimates of the prevalence of FGM as they omit the second generation of women; women who were born in the UK but who may have undergone FGM. Secondly, Dorkenoo
et al
. suggest that the UK Labour Force Survey, which has previously been used to derive the estimates of females affected by FGM, was

not large enough to produce relevant estimates; previous estimates were subject to sampling variability.

There is a lack of reliable data on the number of women (and men) trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation in the UK; the range of estimates is shown in Table 4.7. In 1998, research carried out by Kelly and Regan (2000) identified 71 women victims being trafficked into prostitution in the UK but they describe the estimation as problematic. Key problems in estimating the number of victims include, first, defining what counts as trafficking since there is no commonly agreed definition and, second, that there is a vast number of ‘hidden’ cases of trafficking for sexual exploitation. The average annual number of trafficking cases between 2005 and 2009, according to recorded crime statistics, is 42 (see Table
4.7). Kelly and Regan (2000) identify 71 cases. Estimations of the extent of trafficking cases vary from 1,450 (Kelly and Regan 2000) to 4,000 (Zimmerman
et al
. 2006a, 2006b; Home Office 2007; HM Government 2009c). There is reason to believe that trafficking for sexual exploitation is increasing in the UK (Kelly and Regan 2000; HM Government 2009c; Joint Committee on Human Rights (JCHR) 2006; Zimmerman
et al
. 2006a, 2006b).

In addition to the governmental departments, the United Kingdom Human

Trafficking Centre (UKHTC), End Violence Against Woman (EVAW), (formerly) the Women’s National Commission, and the Poppy project are main actors in the field. The Poppy project offers accommodation and services to victims. Between March 2003 and May 2006, 489 referrals were made to the Poppy project, 99 women were accepted for accommodation and support, and 25 women were provided with outreach services. The scheme operates mainly in London, has tightly focused criteria, and depends upon self- or official referral. As a result, there is reason to suspect that the number of victims nationwide will be considerably higher, and indeed may well be higher than the estimated 4,000 provided by the Home Office. The suggestion that the number of women being trafficked for prostitution into the UK is on the increase seems to be corroborated by the fact that ‘whereas 10 years ago 85% of women in brothels were UK citizens, now 85% were from outside UK’ (JCHR 2006: Q14).

Further estimates of these forms of sexual violence, drawn from academic research, the voluntary sector, government reports and specialised governmental units, are shown in Table
4.7. The Forced Marriage Unit presents data but only on the number of reported cases per year. For estimations of the prevalence, Kazimirski
et al
. (2009) is one of the key sources referred to by academia, NGOs and governmental departments, as are reports by the NGO Karma Nirvana. Dorkenoo
et al
. (2007) appears to be one of the most widely cited sources on the number of victims of FGM, referred to in both governmental and civil society publications, including the Home Office, the (formerly) GEO and EVAW, as well as by other researchers. The UK Human Trafficking Centre (2009) provides information on the number of defendants and victims in trafficking cases. In terms of estimating the number of actual trafficked women, Kelly and Regan (2000) and Zimmerman (2006a, 2006b) seem to be the most reliable sources and are widely cited within academia, by NGOs and used by the Home Office.

Table 4.5
Forced marriage protection order applications made since implementation in November 2008 to end of October 2009

Location Total Adult Child Third party Other Outside

applications victims victims applicants applicants jurisdiction England and Wales 83 18 39 15 11 13

Source
: Ministry of Justice (2009)

Table 4.6
Forced marriage protection orders made since implementation in November 2008 to end of October 2009