Evening's Empire (New Studies in European History) (48 page)

94.
John Milton,
Paradise Lost
, ed. David Scott Kastan and Merritt Yerkes Hughes (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing,
2005
), pp. 10, 192;
I
.61–63,
VI
.380.

95.
Kastan, ed.,
Doctor Faustus
, p. 17; 1.3.76–80 (A-text).

1.
Maria Rzepinska, “Tenebrism in Baroque Painting and Its Ideological Background,”
Artibus et Historiae
13, 7 (
1986
): 91–112. See also Paulette Choné,
L’Atelier des nuits. Histoire et signification du nocturne dans l’art
d’Occident
(Presses universitaires de Nancy,
1992
), and Brigitte Borchhardt-Birbaumer, “Braunlicht und Seelenfunke – Das Nachtstück zur Zeit der Gegenreformation,” in
Die Nacht, ed. Peter-Klaus Schuster, Christoph Vitali, and Ilse von Zur Mühlen
(Munich: Haus der Kunst,
1998
), pp. 83–94.

2.
Rzepinska, “Tenebrism,” p. 92.

3.
Chris Fitter, “The Poetic Nocturne: From Ancient Motif to Renaissance Genre,”
Early Modern Literary Studies
3, 2 (
1997
): paragraphs 1, 62. Online at
http://purl.oclc.org/emls/03–2/fittnoct.html
.

4.
Edward Reynolds,
An explication of the hundreth and tenth Psalme … Being the substance of severall sermons preached at Lincolns Inne
(London: Imprinted by Felix Kyngston for Robert Bostocke,
1632
), p. 371 (original emphasis).

5.
Carl Krause,
Euricius Cordus: Eine biographische Skizze aus der Reformationszeit
(Hanau: König,
1863
), p. 92; Ulman Weiss, “Nicodemus Martyr – ein unbekanntes Pseudonym Sebastian Francks?”
Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte
85 (
1994
): 163–79, 167; Frederik Casparus Wieder,
De Schriftuurlijke liedekens, de liederen der Nederlandsche hervormden tot op het jaar 1566
(’s-Gravenhage: M. Nijhoff,
1900
), pp. 53–54.

6.
Erika Rummel,
The Confessionalization of Humanism in Reformation Germany
(Oxford University Press,
2000
), pp. 75, 102–20;
D. Martin Luthers Werke. Kritische Gesamtausgabe
(Weimar: H. Böhlaus Nachfolger,
1883
–),
XLVII
: 1–28.

7.
See Stefania Tutino, “Between Nicodemism and ‘Honest’ Dissimulation: The Society of Jesus in England,”
Historical Research
79, 206 (
2006
): 534–53; Nikki Shepardson, “The Rhetoric of Martyrdom and the Anti-Nicodemite Discourses in France, 1550–1570,”
Renaissance and Reformation/Renaissance et Reforme
27, 3 (
2003
): 37–61; John S. Oyer, “Nicodemites among Württemberg Anabaptists,”
Mennonite Quarterly Review
71, 4 (
1997
): 487–514, and the literature cited there.

8.
The name “Huguenot” itself, in use by about 1552, was associated with worship at night. Beza reported that “At Tours there was a superstitious belief that the ghost of Hugh Capet roamed through the city at night. As the Protestants held their meetings in the night, they were derisively called Huguenots, as if they were the troop of King Hugh.” George Park Fisher,
The Reformation
(New York: C. Scribner’s Sons,
1906
), p. 227. See also Philip Benedict,
Christ’s Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism
(New Haven: Yale University Press,
2002
), p. 143.

9.
See Charles L. Kuhn, “The Mairhauser Epitaph: An Example of Late Sixteenth-Century Lutheran Iconography,”
Art Bulletin
58, 4 (
1976
): 542–46.

10.
Patrick Collinson,
The Elizabethan Puritan Movement
(London: Routledge,
1982
), p. 21.

11.
John Foxe,
Actes and monuments of matters most speciall and memorable, happenyng in the Church … from the primitiue age to these latter tymes of ours, with the bloudy times, horrible troubles, and great persecutions agaynst the true martyrs of Christ, sought and wrought as well by heathen emperours, as nowe lately practised by Romish prelates, especially in this realme of England and Scotland. Newly reuised and recognised, partly also augmented, and now the fourth time agayne published
, 2 vols. (London: Imprinted by Iohn Daye, dwellyng ouer Aldersgate beneath S. Martins,
1583
), pp. 2075–76. See J.W. Martin, “The Protestant Underground Congregations of Mary’s Reign,”
Journal of Ecclesiastical History
35, 4 (
1984
): 522–23.

12.
Théodore de Bèze,
Histoire ecclésiastique des églises réformées au royaume de France
, ed. G. Baum and Eduard Cunitz (Paris: Librairie Fischbacher,
1883
),
I
: 345. For evidence of Reformed services at night in Paris in 1557, see Barbara
Diefendorf
,
The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre: A Brief History with Documents
(Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2009), pp. 48–56. On the massacre as nocturnal state violence, see Alain Cabantous,
Histoire de la nuit: XVIIe–XVIIIe siècle
(Paris: Fayard, 2009), p. 148.

13.
John Strype (1643–1737),
The Life and Acts of John Whitgift … Digested, Compiled, and Attested from Records, Registers, Original Letters and Other Authentic Mss
(Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1822
),
I
: 165–66.

14.
Collinson,
Elizabethan Puritan Movement
, pp. 372–80; for more examples, see Patrick Collinson, John Craig, and Brett Usher, eds.,
Conferences and Combination Lectures in the Elizabethan Church: Dedham and Bury St. Edmunds, 1582–1590
, Church of England Record Society 10 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press,
2003
), p. 218.

15.
Thomas Jackson (1579–1640),
The humiliation of the Sonne of God by his becomming the Son of man, by taking the forme of a servant, and by his sufferings under Pontius Pilat … by Thomas Jackson Dr. in Divinitie, chaplaine to his Majestie in ordinarie, and president of Corpus Christi Colledge in Oxford
(London: Printed by M. Flesher for John Clark,
1635
), p. 355.

16.
On the most recent scholarship, see R. Emmet McLaughlin, “Radicals,” in
Reformation and Early Modern Europe: A Guide to Research
, ed. David M. Whitford (Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press,
2008
), pp. 103–10.

17.
Anabaptists first settled in Moravia in the 1530s. By 1545 there were thirty-one Hutterite communities on noble estates there. After decades of pressure from Habsburg supporters of the Catholic Reformation, the last Anabaptists were driven out of Moravia in 1622; most resettled in Hungary. See Claus Peter Clasen,
Anabaptism: A Social History, 1525–1618: Switzerland, Austria, Moravia, South and Central Germany
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,
1972
), pp. 211–13.

18.
For an example of Anabaptists arrested at an afternoon gathering (“nachmittage umb iii slege”) in 1535, see Paul Wappler,
Die Täuferbewegung in Thüringen von 1526–1584
(Jena: Fischer,
1913
), p. 128.

19.
A survey of published primary sources reveals thirty-four specific documented gatherings by night in the period before 1618, as well as references to other specific meetings and to regular meetings at night. These must represent only a fraction of the total number of Anabaptists’ nocturnal gatherings.

20.
Stephen F. Nelson and Jean Rott, “Strasbourg: The Anabaptist City in the Sixteenth Century,”
Mennonite Quarterly Review
58 (
1984
): 230–40.

21.
See the list in Jean Rott and Marc Lienhard, “La communauté de ‘frères suisses’ de Strasbourg de 1557 à 1660,”
Saisons d’Alsace
76 (
1981
): 30.

22.
Ibid
., p. 32.

23.
Elsa Bernhofer-Pippert,
Täuferische Denkweisen und Lebensformen im Spiegel oberdeutscher Täuferverhöre
, Reformationsgeschichtliche Studien und Texte 96 (Münster: Aschendorff,
1967
), pp. 90–92.

24.
Günther Franz, ed.,
Wiedertäuferakten, 1527–1626
, Urkundliche Quellen zur hessischen Reformationsgeschichte 4 (Marburg: Elwert,
1951
), p. 178.

25.
The sermon on Revelation 11 might have stressed the measuring of the temple of God and its altar (Rev. 11:1) or the prophets identified as “two candlesticks [or torches] standing before the God of the earth” (Rev. 11:4).

26.
On this theme see Bernhofer-Pippert,
Täuferische Denkweisen
, pp. 38, 56, 98.

27.
Abraham Hulshof,
Gescheidenis van de Doopsgezinden te Straatsburg van 1525 tot 1557
(Amsterdam: Clausen,
1905
); for the Steinle account see pp. 208–11 (my emphasis).

28.
In 1600 the church council of the Palatinate noted the mocking tone of Anabaptist Niclaus Weitzel in a report on the growth of the movement in the principality: “When they [the Anabaptists] are told to go to church, they say they have a vast church; it has a great roof, and that is where they go.” Acknowledging this reference to the outdoor, typically nocturnal gatherings of the Anabaptists, the council remarked with resignation that “they too have their nocturnal assemblies in the area around Erpolzheim.” Manfred Krebs, ed.,
Baden und Pfalz
, Quellen zur Geschichte der Täufer 4 (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann,
1951
), p. 233.

29.
In his “Dialog on Drunkenness” (1551) the Colmar poet Jörg Wickram explained that “the custom of Anabaptists is to meet in dark forests in old abandoned shacks.” See Jörg Wickram,
Sämtliche Werke
, vol.
X
,
Kleine Spiele
, ed. Hans-Gert Roloff (Berlin: de Gruyter,
1997
), p. 285.

30.
Gary K. Waite,
Eradicating the Devil’s Minions: Anabaptists and Witches in Reformation Europe, 1525–1600
(University of Toronto Press,
2007
), p. 67.

31.
The title of the Dutch edition of 1576; printed as “Reply to False Accusations,” in Menno Simons,
The Complete Writings of Menno Simons, c. 1496–1561
, trans. Leonard Verduin, ed. John C. Wenger, with a bibliography by Harold S. Bender (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press,
1956
), pp. 541–77; here pp. 566–67.

32.
Ibid
.

33.
Despite the rifts between Dutch–North German Mennonites and Swiss Anabaptism, shared persecution led to similar arguments, seen for example in a Swiss confession of 1588, the “Einfache Bekenntnis” of an unknown representative of the rural Zurich Anabaptist community. The confession explained that “we do our best [to gather] with thanks and praise in the forests, in stables or other places, wherever God gives us space and place.” When “the clear and pure truth … is neither heard nor accepted, but persecuted instead” then the “pious servants of Christ … shall preserve themselves from the persecutors and their enemies with caution and humility.” Urs B. Leu and Christian Scheidegger,
Die Zürcher Täufer 1525–1700
(Zurich: Theologischer Verlag Zürich,
2007
), Appendix, p. 381: “sonder werden sich nach maß und bescheidenheit vor den vervolgeren und iren fynden hütten.”

34.
Hessian authorities discovered to their dismay that
both
Swiss Brethren and Moravians were meeting secretly at night in Hesse; Nolte attended a gathering of the Swiss Brethren. See Theodor Sippel, “The Confession of the Swiss Brethren in Hesse, 1578,”
Mennonite Quarterly Review
23 (
1949
): 22–34.

35.
Ibid
., p. 23, and Franz, ed.,
Wiedertaüferakten
, p. 400. See David Mayes, “Heretics or Nonconformists? State Policies toward Anabaptists in Sixteenth-Century Hesse,”
Sixteenth Century Journal
32, 4 (
2001
): 1003–26.

36.
See Heinold Fast, “Die Aushebung einer nächtlichen Täuferversammlung 1574,”
Mennonitische Geschichtsblätter
31 (
1974
): 103–06.

37.
The Chronicle of the Hutterian Brethren
(
Das große Geschichtbuch der Hutterischen Brüder
) (Rifton, NY: Plough Publishing House, 1987),
I
: 223–24. The entries discussed here were written between 1542 and
c
. 1580 by Hans Kräl and Hauprecht Zapf (p. xv).

38.
Ibid
.,
I
: 398–401.

39.
Ibid
.,
I
: 373.

40.
“Schleitheim Articles/Brotherly Union (1527),” trans. Cornelius J. Dyck
et al
., in
Confessions of Faith in the Anabaptist Tradition, 1527–1660
, ed. with an Introduction by Karl Koop, Classics of the Radical Reformation 11 (Kitchener, Ontario: Pandora Press, 2006), p. 28.