Authors: Peter Stark
“Russian and American Settlements on the North West Coast of America.”
North American Review,
c. 1, vol. 2 (1815): 301–303.
“Sailors Who Cannot Swim.”
New York Times,
May 3, 1883.
Shaw, George C.
The Chinook Jargon and How to Use It: A Complete and Exhaustive Lexicon of the Oldest Trade Language of the American Continent
. Seattle: Rainier, 1909.
Sparks, Jared.
Life of John Ledyard, American Traveller
. Boston: Charles C. Little & James Brown, 1847.
Stark, Peter.
Last Breath: Cautionary Tales from the Limits of Human Endurance
. New York: Ballantine Books, 2001.
Terrell, John Upton.
Furs by Astor
. New York: William Morrow, 1963.
Thomas, Edwin Harper.
Chinook: A History and Dictionary
. 2nd ed. Portland OR: Binfords & Mort, 1970.
Thwaites, Reuben Gold, ed.
Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806: With Facsimiles, Maps, Plans, Views, Portraits, and a Bibliography
. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1905.
Tocqueville, Alexis de.
Letters from America
. Ed. Frederick Brown. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010.
United States Geological Survey. Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/, retrieved October 6, 2013.
Vakoch, Douglas A., ed.
Psychology of Space Exploration.
Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Communications, 2011.
Wang, Jack, John C. Thornton, Mary Russell, Santiago Burastero, Steven Heymsfield, and Richard N. Pierson Jr. “Asians Have Lower Body Mass Index (BMI) but Higher Percent Body Fat than do Whites: Comparisons of Anthropometric Measurements.”
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
60, no. 1 (July 1994): 23–28.
Williams, Stanley T.
The Life of Washington Irving.
Vols. 1–2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1935.
Zug, James.
American Traveler: The Life and Adventures of John Ledyard, the Man Who Dreamed of Walking the World.
New York: Basic Books, 2005.
John Jacob Astor, after a Portrait by Gilbert Stuart,
collection of the New-York Historical Society, negative #57707
“Mrs. Astor (from a Miniature),” print collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations
“Walldorf House,” print collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations
Portrait of Lieutenant Jonathan Thorn, Naval History & Heritage Command, Washington, D.C.
John Jacob Astor
by John Wesley Jarvis, ca. 1825, National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution/Art Resource, NY
Wilson Hunt Price, Missouri History Museum, St. Louis.
Tontine Coffee House,
N.Y.C. by Francis Guy, ca. 1797, collection of the New-York Historical Society, Purchase, Louis Durr Fund
Canoes in a Fog, Lake Superior
by Frances Anne Hopkins, 1869, reproduced with permission from the Glenbow Museum, Calgary, Alberta
Engraving of voyageur’s face illustration by Carl W. Bertsch, from
The Voyageur
by Grace Lee Nute
View from Floyd’s Grave, 1300 Miles Above St. Louis
by George Catlin, 1832, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY
Stu-mick-o-súcks, Buffalo Bull’s Back Fat, Head Chief, Blood Tribe
by George Catlin, 1832, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY
Mih-Tutta-Hangkusch, a Mandan Village
by Karl Bodmer, 1841, Akg-images.com
The Interior of the Hut of a Mandan Chief
by Karl Bodmer, ca. 1832, Wisconsin Historical Society, 6341
Sha-kó-ka, Mint, a Pretty Girl
by George Catlin, 1832, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY
Buffalo Chase over Prairie Bluffs
by George Catlin, early 1830s, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C./Art Resource, NY
“The American Falls of Lewis Fork,” Rare Books Division, Special Collections, J. Willard Marriott Library, University of Utah
Snake River Canyon, Idaho Historical Society, 62-1.0
Entrevue de l’expedition de M. Kotzebue avec le roi Tammeamea dans l’ile d’Ovayhi, Iles Sandwich
by Louis Choris, 1827, National Library of Australia, 2872081
Sea Otter,
by S. Smith, after John Webber, in James Cook,
A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean . . . Performed under the Direction of Captains Cook, Clerke, and Gore . . . 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780
(London: W. Strahan, 1780), engraving, Rare Book & Special Collections Division (16.5)
“Tenaktak canoes,” Northwestern University Library, in Edward S. Curtis,
The North American Indian
(Cologne: Taschen, 2003)
Interior of Whale House of Chief Klart-Reech, Klukwan, Alaska. c. 1895,
P87-0013, Alaska State Library, Winter & Pond Photograph Collection
“Tluwulahu mask—Tswatenok,” Northwestern University Library, in Edward S. Curtis,
The North American Indian
(Cologne: Taschen, 2003)
Yéil X’eenh
(Raven Screen), ca. 1810, attributed to Kadyisdu.axch’, Tlingit, Kiks.adi Clan, active late eighteenth to early nineteenth century, Gaanaxteidi’, Klukwan village, Frog House, spruce and paint, Seattle Art Museum, gift of John H. Hauberg, 79.98, photograph by Paul Macapia
Ka’heit’am
(Stone Club), pre-1778, Northwest Coast, Nuu’chah’nulth, ground and pecked basalt, human hair, and spruce pitch, Seattle Art Museum, gift of John H. Hauberg, 91.1.21
“View of the Falkland Islands,” in Parsons Avery and Gabriel Franchère,
Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America
“Entrance of the Columbia River,” in Parsons Avery and Gabriel Franchère,
Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America
Illustration of an engraving of voyageurs portaging a canoe by Carl W. Bertsch, in Grace Lee Nute,
The Voyageur
“Astoria, as It Was in 1813,” in Parsons Avery and Gabriel Franchère,
Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America
“J. Jacob Astor’s Former Residence, 88th St. near East River,” print collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations
Portrait of Robert Stuart, Missouri History Museum, St. Louis, MO
Portrait of Donald Mackenzie, Chautauqua County Historical Society, Westfield, NY
Portrait of Gabriel Franchère, Minnesota Historical Society, por 27358 p1
Portrait of Alexander Ross, Archives of Manitoba, Ross, Alexander 4 (N21467)
The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific entry, please use your e-book reader’s search tools.
Aiken, Job, 82, 83, 85, 89, 192
Alaska:
Beaver
mission and, 261; Hunt in, 274–75, 292; Russia sale to U.S. of, 301.
See also
Russian fur traders
Albatross
(Hunt/Astor ship), 276–77, 279, 281
Arikara Indians, 111–12, 117–24, 125–26
Astor Bentzon, Magdalen (daughter), 93, 164–65
Astor, John Jacob: ambitions of, 9–12, 14–15, 26, 96; appearance of, 9, 19; and blame for failure of Astoria expedition, 288–89; criticisms of, 301; death of, 301; family/descendants of, 8, 9, 11, 93, 164–66, 294, 301–2; image of, 302; legacy of, 260, 296, 302–3; as New York City landowner, 12, 15, 293, 301; personal and professional background of, 8–15, 208; personality and character of, 7, 9, 79, 96, 288; retirement of, 293, 294; as risk-taker, 186–87, 288, 303; as role model, 303; vision of, 2, 3, 14–15, 19–21, 25, 76, 94, 286–87, 289, 295, 302, 303; wealth of, 15, 301, 304; wilderness travels of, 13, 14, 166, 208.
See also
specific person or topic
Astor, Sarah Todd (wife), 12, 13, 96, 163–64, 165, 240, 293, 301
Astor, William Backhouse (son), 165, 294, 301
Astoria: abandonment of, 264, 265–73, 277, 289; as Astor legacy, 260, 296, 302–3; and Astorians concerns about
Beaver,
261, 262; Astor’s attempts to protect, 264–65, 277, 287; Astor’s commitment to, 240, 252, 259–60, 264–65, 277; Astor’s lack of information about, 240–41, 259–60; Astor’s reaction to selling of, 282–83, 294, 297; as beginning of American democracy on West Coast, 2; British and, 193–96, 256–57, 281–83, 285; building of, 189–92, 198–99, 217, 218, 221–22, 241–42; Christmas and New Year’s (1811) at, 221; council of war at, 263–64; desertions from, 219; as epicenter of Astor’s global–West coast commerical empire, 2, 20–21, 163, 187, 197, 238–39; and establishment of fur posts, 192–93, 196, 218–19, 238–39, 242, 245–49, 254; as first American colony on West Coast, 2, 197, 241, 303; food and supplies for, 218, 220–21, 222, 227, 237, 238, 241, 242, 252, 257–58, 262, 263, 269, 289; human losses at, 287; Hunt’s return to, 273–74, 276–77, 284; importance of, 264, 297, 298–99, 300, 302–3; leadership at, 170, 187, 190, 191, 219, 225–26, 227–28, 238, 242, 261, 272, 276, 284, 291, 292; McDougall-McTavish agreement about, 271–72, 289; and McTavish-Clarke-Mackenzie meeting, 255–56, 261; naming of, 189–90; North West Company and, 228, 242, 261, 268–69, 271, 281–84; Overland Party arrival at, 217, 218, 223, 225–26, 227; paranoia at, 217–18, 262, 288; picture of, 185; population of, 196–97, 227; remoteness of, 197–99; renamed as Fort George, 285; selling of, 271–72, 282–83, 284, 289, 291, 292, 294–95, 297; siting of, 187–89; stress/depression among members at, 242, 243–45, 262–64, 292; Thompson at, 193–94, 195, 196, 232;
Tonquin
and, 191–92, 196–97, 217, 218, 244, 262; and U.S. claims to Northwest Coast, 298–99; vulnerability of, 217, 257–58, 259–60; and War of 1812, 252–53, 255–58, 261, 262–63, 264–65; weather at, 218, 219–20, 221, 244, 261–62, 276, 288–89.
See also
Astoria expedition;
specific person
Astoria expedition: Astor’s lack of information about, 239–41, 259–60; benefits of, 26; blame for failure of, 288–91; funding for, 25; human losses of, 22, 90, 286, 287; Irving commissioned to write story of, 293; leadership of, 22–26; partners in, 24; physical risk in, 25–26; planning for, 25, 93–98, 163–67; recruitment for, 23–25; return to the East of, 284–85; rivals to, 93–98.
See also
Astoria; Overland Party; Seagoing Party;
specific person, ship, or topic
Baker’s Bay, 187, 188, 189, 191–92, 199, 238
Baranoff, Count, 274–75, 284, 292, 307
Beaver
(Astor ship): at Astoria, 237–38, 242; Astorians’ concerns about, 261, 262; and Astor’s concerns about War of 1812, 257; Astor’s goblets on, 266; Astor’s instructions for, 237–38, 257, 270; Astor’s lack of information about, 277; and decision to abandon Astoria, 269, 270; in Hawaii, 275–76, 292; Hunt and, 239, 257, 261, 269, 270, 274–77, 289, 292; mission of, 163, 239, 261, 274, 275; number aboard, 288; passengers and crew on, 238, 242, 246, 288.
See also
Sowle, Cornelius
Benton, Thomas Hart, 298, 299
Bentzon, Adrian, 164–65
Bighorn Mountains, 129, 130
Blackfeet Indians, 99, 103–4, 110–11, 113–14, 116, 117, 126, 135, 203, 225, 228, 272
Boit, John, 74–75, 207
botany, 101–2.
See also
Bradbury, John; Nuttall, Thomas
Brackenridge, Henry M., 118–22, 124, 125, 127
Bradbury, John, 102, 103, 105, 106, 109–10, 115, 118–24, 127, 176
British: Astoria and, 193–96, 256–57, 281–83, 285; Astor’s concerns about, 97, 114, 238, 241, 251–54, 257–58; claims to Northwest Coast of, 97, 232, 294, 300; French culture clash with, 33–34; as fur traders, 13, 14–15, 33–34, 74; Seven Years’ War and, 34, 45; U.S. relations with, 16, 35, 76–77, 97, 114, 238, 241, 251–54, 257–58, 294.
See also
Royal Navy, British; War of 1812;
specific person
Caldron Linn, 147, 148, 149, 152, 161, 222, 228–29, 239
cannibalism, 183
Caratouch Indians, 266–68
Carriere, Michael (voyageur), 178, 179, 183, 223
catabolism, 161–62
China: Astor’s tea trade with, 15; and Astor’s vision of commerical empire, 15, 21, 22, 163; Cook’s trade with, 71; fur trade with, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 206, 261, 275; and inauguration of Astor’s emporium, 192; and Jefferson’s vision for West Coast, 22; lack of knowledge about, 71; Ledyard’s trade with, 72, 73; and Russia-Astor relationship, 25
Chinook Indians, 188–89, 193, 199, 205, 225, 227, 241, 273, 283–84, 305
Chittenden, Hiram, 110, 287, 300
citizenship: of Canadians on Astoria expedition, 253–54
Clappine, Antoine, 144–46, 147, 223
Clark, William, 51, 125.
See also
Lewis and Clark expedition
Clarke, John, 238, 245, 254, 255–56, 265–68, 269, 271, 286
Clayoquot Indians, 204
n,
302, 306;
Tonquin
and, 202–16, 302
Clearwater fur post, 254–57, 262
clerks: at Astoria, 227, 263; Astoria departure of, 284; as
Beaver
passengers, 238; Ehninger in charge of, 270; at Falkland Islands, 38, 39, 53–55; in Hawaii, 61–65; on
Pedlar,
284; and return to the East, 285; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245, 246; as
Tonquin
passengers, 27–29, 32, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 290.
See also
specific person
Coastal Indians: at Astoria, 191, 196, 197–98, 199, 220; and Astoria paranoia, 217–18, 227; and desertions from Astoria, 219; displacement of, 300; hunting/fishing by, 199, 203–4, 206–7; intertribal trade among, 205–6; lifestyle of, 204–5, 204
n
; McDougall’s relationship with, 191, 197–98; and McDougall’s smallpox threat, 218; and siting of Astoria, 188; Thorn’s trading with, 191, 290; wealth of, 203–4, 205; white traders’ relationship with, 205.
See also
specific person or tribe
Coles, John, 82, 85, 89
Colter, John, 102–6, 103
n,
111, 116
Columbia Basin, 243, 249, 299
Columbia River: human losses on, 287; naming of, 75; Overland Party search for headwaters of, 131, 132, 137, 183; plate tectonics and, 156;
Tonquin’
s attempts to cross the bar of, 67–69, 76–77, 79–90, 187; and U.S. claims to Northwest Coast, 298.
See also
Columbia Basin; Narrows, Columbia River
Comcomly (Chinook Chief), 188–89, 205, 237, 263, 273, 283, 291
Continental Divide, 50, 132, 194, 297
Cook, James, 55, 60–62, 70–71, 72, 73, 97, 206
Cox, Ross, 209, 213, 214, 272, 283, 308
Crooks, Ramsay: and Arikara-Lisa-Hunt council, 119, 123; artifacts from canoe of, 146
n
; at Astoria, 237, 242; background of, 106; catabolism and, 161; and Clappine death, 144–45, 223; and Crooks-Hunt Mad River meeting, 159–62, 170–71; and dangers facing Overland Party, 101, 170; death of, 305; food and supplies for, 234, 235–36; horse for, 124; Hunt’s relationship with, 178; illness of, 126, 127, 159–62, 170–71, 172, 173, 174, 177, 178, 183, 234; as member of Overland Party, 106; as missing, 223; personality and character of, 107; post-Astoria life of, 293–94, 305, 306; quits Astoria, 242, 293–94; recruitment of, 25, 305; reputation of, 305; and Return Overland Party, 245, 297, 304, 307; role in Astoria expedition of, 25, 144; and route of Overland Party, 137; with Shoshone Indians, 223, 233, 234; and splitting up of Overland Party, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 159–62, 169–74, 177, 178, 183, 233; Stuart flotilla meeting with, 233, 235, 236; trek to Astoria of, 233–36, 246, 249
Crow Indians, 126, 129–30, 134
Day, John, 25, 109, 144, 178, 223, 233–36, 237, 242, 245–48, 249, 308
Devil’s Scuttle Hole: Overland Party at, 147, 153
Dolly
(Astoria schooner), 191, 192, 218, 219
Dorion, Jean Baptiste and Paul (sons), 25, 101, 106, 107–8, 124–25, 144, 152, 153, 157, 167, 169, 171, 178, 223, 245, 285–86, 308
Dorion, Marie: Astoria arrival of, 223; and dangers facing Overland Party, 167; death of, 299; “Great Migration” and, 299; horse of, 172; and Mad River trip, 144; as member of Overland Party, 106; and mountain trek, 157; personality and character of, 125; plains trek of, 124–25; pregnancy/baby of, 125, 152, 153, 178, 180–81, 181
n,
182; recruitment of, 25, 101, 107–8; rescue of, 285–86; role in Astoria expedition of, 25, 107–8, 125; Sacagawea and, 108, 125; and splitting up of Overland Party, 152, 169, 171, 172, 178, 180, 181; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245
Dorion, Pierre, Jr. (Indian interpreter): and Arikara-Lisa-Hunt council, 119, 121; Astoria arrival of, 223; death of, 285, 286
n
; horse of, 172; and Hunt-Shoshone negotiations, 175; as interpreter for Overland Party, 101, 106, 107, 125, 155; Lisa and, 107; and Mad River trip, 144; and Marie’s childbirth, 181; recruitment for Overland Party of, 107; and splitting up of Overland Party, 152, 169, 171, 172, 181; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245
Ehninger, George, 238, 270
Enterprise
(Astor’s ship), 20, 163, 240–41
Falkland Islands, 1, 38–39, 53–55, 56
Farnham (clerk), 39, 228–29, 267
Forester
(Astor’s secret ship), 259–60, 265, 277, 289
Fort William (trading post), 34, 44, 94–98, 194, 255, 258
Fox, Mr. (
Tonquin
first mate), 32, 65, 68–69, 76, 79–81, 89, 192
Franchère, Gabriel: and Astoria council of war, 263–64; and building of Astoria, 189; and concerns about
Beaver,
261; and desertions from Astoria, 219; and dissatisfaction of partners, 242; and Dorion family rescue, 286; and Falkland Islands incident, 54–55; and food and supplies at Astoria, 221; in Hawaii, 55, 56, 59, 60; and Hunt’s reaction to abandoning Astoria, 277; and Hunt’s return to Astoria, 274, 284; and MacKenzie (Donald) arrival at Astoria, 222; McDougall comments of, 291; McKay description by, 28; and mystery ship incident, 31; and paranoia at Astoria, 198; post-Astoria life of, 308; reputation of, 308; return to the East of, 285; and selling of Astoria, 282; and siting of Astoria, 188–89; Spaniard story of, 69
n
; and Thompson at Astoria, 193, 195, 196; and
Tonquin
crossing of Columbia Bar, 68, 80, 88; and
Tonquin
loss, 199; as
Tonquin
passenger, 28, 29, 31, 36, 38; and
Tonquin
relationships, 28, 36, 38; and War of 1812, 253; and weather at Astoria, 220, 221, 276
fur posts: for Canadian fur trade, 46; establishment/expansion of Astoria, 192–93, 196, 218–19, 228, 238–39, 243, 245–49; McDougall-McTavish agreement to split up, 271–72; and mission of Overland Party, 20; of North West Company, 243, 299.
See also
specific post
fur trade: Astor’s early career in, 10–15; Astor’s potential profits from, 241; and Astor’s vision for Astoria, 20–21, 163; Astor’s wealth and, 301; British regulation of, 35; characteristics of American, 35, 47–48; with China, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 206; cultural and economic differences and, 33–35; expansion of, 13–15; and explorations of Northwest Coast, 14–15; hierarchy in Canadian, 44–45; Mackenzie’s (Donald) views about, 254–57; Native Americans and, 34, 35; as source of wealth, 12–13; violence in, 74–75; voyageurs and, 34, 45, 46–47.
See also
Russian fur traders; Scottish fur traders;
specific person or Indian tribe
Gallatin, Albert, 252, 264–65, 295, 298
goblets, Astor’s silver, 266–68
Grand Portage fur post, 46–47
Gray, Robert, 74–75, 76, 188, 207, 306
“Great Migration,” 299–300
Green River: Overland Party on, 132–33, 132–33
n,
136, 137–38
Hawaii:
Beaver
in, 275–76, 292; Cook in, 55, 60–62, 71;
Forester
in, 289; Hunt in, 276, 284, 289, 292;
Lark
and, 279, 281; Perrault incident in, 55–56;
Tonquin
in, 55–65, 76–77
Hawaiians: at Astoria, 221, 222, 227; as expert swimmers, 85–86; recruitment of, 58, 64–65; and Tongue Point flotilla, 245, 246; and
Tonquin
crossing Columbia Bar, 82–90
Hells Canyon: Overland Party at, 160–62, 169–76, 177
Henry, Andrew, 51, 111, 134–35, 225
Hoback, John, 110–11, 112, 114–15, 117, 126, 131, 132, 133, 134–35, 140–41, 307
horses: and Arikara-Lisa-Hunt council, 122–23, 125; and Caldron Linn cache, 228; and decision to abandon Astoria, 268; and Dorion rescue, 285–86; Overland Party and, 111–12, 122–25, 127, 130, 136, 148–50, 158, 161, 170, 171, 173–75, 177–79; and Return Overland Party, 245; “smoking” and, 123; stealing of, 123; and Stuart’s resupplying of Okanogan post, 230
Hudson’s Bay Company, 13, 14, 24, 35, 299, 306, 307, 308
Hunt, Wilson Price: in Alaska, 274–75, 292; on
Albatross,
276–77, 279, 281; Astoria arrival of, 223, 225–26; Astor’s lack of information about, 259; Astor’s letters to and from, 93, 97, 114, 116, 227–29, 230, 231, 239, 245, 260, 270, 277–78, 279, 295; Astor’s relationship with, 101, 114, 253, 254, 260, 291;
Beaver
and, 239, 257, 261, 269, 270, 274–77, 289, 292; and blame for failure of Astoria expedition, 289, 291; challenges facing, 225–26; and decision to abandon Astoria, 269–70, 277; in Hawaii, 276, 284, 289, 292; lack of experience of, 41, 98, 117, 151–52, 170; and leadership at Astoria, 187, 225–26, 227–28, 238, 242, 261, 276, 284; MacKenzie’s relationship with, 42; in Marquesas, 279, 284, 289; McDougall and, 238, 273–74, 277, 284; mission of, 238–39; and Nicoll’s quitting, 244; and North West Company, 239; partners relationship with, 115, 238, 269–70; on
Pedlar,
284; personality and character of, 23, 41, 79, 115, 126–27, 133, 162, 171, 172, 176, 178, 225, 238, 291–92; post-Astoria life of, 305; priorities at Astoria of, 227–28; professional background of, 23, 305; and recruitment for Astoria expedition, 41, 42, 46–50, 101, 107, 139, 269; reputation of, 162, 305; responsibilities of, 114, 116; return to Astoria of, 273–74, 276–77, 284; role in Astoria expedition of, 23; and selling of Astoria furs, 284; stress of, 292; and War of 1812, 276.
See also
Hunt, Wilson Price—with Overland Party