Arthurian Romances (92 page)

23
. A tanned or dark complexion in the Middle Ages, unlike today, was considered a sign of low birth. Only those who were obligated to work in the sun by day were tanned; nobles prided themselves on having lily-white complexions. [6779]

1
. ‘My lady of Champagne' is Marie de Champagne, daughter of the French King Louis VII by his first wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Marie was married in 1159 to Henri I the Liberal of Champagne and was the patroness of Chrétien, Andreas Capellanus, Conon de Béthune, and other important writers of both Latin and vernacular literature. Theirs was the principal literary court of twelfth-century France, and was rivalled in Europe only by that in England of her mother Eleanor and her second husband, Henry II Plantagenet. [1]

2
. In spite of Uitti's objections (1984), I prefer the traditional interpretation of this passage, which preserves its symmetry, with the term representing the countess consistently in first position. Uitti's selective ‘editorial grill' eliminates contravening data (e.g., the separation of
qui
from its antecedent in lines 7–8, and the fact that
si con
does not normally cause inversion in this text) and obliges him to come up with a line supported by none of the extant MSS. The traditional reading remains much more strongly supported by the existing evidence. Rahilly (1974, p. 413), in the only detailed study of the Garrett MS, upon which Uitti bases his arguments, concludes that it ‘apporte peu d'aide à notre compréhension de la tradition textuelle. Plusieurs omissions, des passages embrouillés, des réfections donnent l'impression qu'il s'agit d'une part d'un texte de la tradition copié tardivement, d'autre part d'une certaine inattention scribale qui mène à des interprétations assez particulières à ce manuscrit'. [12]

3
. The precise meanings of the principal terms in this passage are the subject of much scholarly dispute. The countess is, of course, ‘My lady of Champagne'.
Matiere
(‘source') is usually interpreted to refer to Chrétien's source matter or story – be it Celtic, Classical, or contemporary;
san
(‘meaning') furnished (like the
matiere
) by the Countess, is seen as the meaning or interpretation given the source material – and refers therefore to the thematic interpretation of the entire poem.
Painne
(‘effort') might ‘include all the steps of composition from the conception of the matter and order of the poem to the final organization' (Kelly 1966, p. 94), while
antancion
(‘diligence') appears to refer to the care and attention that Chrétien showed in the elaboration of the
matiere
so as to reveal the
san
intended by the countess. The tone of the prologue is ambiguous and much disputed, and indeed the problem of tone extends to the entire romance. Is Chrétien saying he will offer a serious and sympathetic depiction of an adulterous courtly love relationship, as Marie has requested? Or does he ironically and humorously undercut his patroness's apparent wishes, suggesting thereby that the practice of ‘courtly love' renders a lover ridiculous? [24–9]

4
. This is the earliest known mention of Arthur's famous castle of Camelot, and the only allusion to it in Chrétien's works. Whether it actually existed and its location are still the subjects of much scholarly disagreement. Caerleon is generally identified as Caerleon on the river Usk (Gwent). [32]

5
. This is the most famous example of a rash boon in Chrétien's romances. (See note
³
to
Erec
.) [155ff.]

6
. In some MSS this plea is addressed to the king, in others it is not addressed to anyone in particular. Since Guinevere seems to be addressing her absent lover, we have chosen the reading that makes this most clear. [209]

7
. Castles of the period consisted generally of a large central room, called the hall, along with several small private chambers for the household. Therefore beds for guests were regularly set up in the same room in which the guests were entertained for dinner. [461]

8
. It is quite possible that Gorre refers to the Celtic underworld, sometimes termed the Isle de Voirre (‘Isle of Glass'). False etymology identified this with Glastonbury, Somerset. In the poem it is the land into which Meleagant will take the queen and where he will hold her captive along with many others. Its capital is Bade (Bath). [639]

9
. The
angevin
was the denier of Anjou. [1273]

10
. Logres in medieval romance is the mythical kingdom of Arthur. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, Aeneas's great-grandson Brutus fled from Italy after slaying his father and eventually reached Albion, which he renamed Britain in honour of himself. He divided the land among his three sons: Kamber received Wales (Kambria), Albanactus took Scotland (Albany), and Locrinus was given what is now England proper (Loegria). The precise geographical boundaries of Logres varied according to the accounts, but generally included the land east of the Severn and south of the Humber (excepting Cornwall). [1300]

11
. Ysoré is the name of a Saracen king mentioned in several of the epics of the Old French William of Orange cycle, notably the
Moniage Guillaume
, and in some Arthurian romances. ‘Not since the time of the giant Ysoré' reflects a long and imprecise period of time. [1352]

12
.
Theriaca
(or
theriac
) is a paste made from many different drugs pulverized and mixed with honey, which was formerly used as an antidote to poisons. [1475]

13
. The great fair called Lendi (or Lendit) was held annually at St Denis, near Paris, during 11–24 June. This, and the four great fairs held in Champagne (Provins, Troyes, Lagny-sur-Marne, and Bar-sur-Aube), were at the very
centre of medieval commerce, and travellers and merchants brought goods to them from every corner of the known world. [1482]

14
. Dombes was a small principality in Burgundy, between the Rhône, the Saône, and the Ain. It was probably chosen for the rhyme rather than for any particularly fine medieval tombs. [1858]

15
. The ‘ointment of the Three Marys' was a purportedly miraculous ointment widely attested in medieval texts. The Three Marys are mentioned in the Gospel account of Easter Sunday: ‘When the sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and [Mary] Salome brought perfumed oils with which they intended to go and anoint Jesus' (Mark xvi. 1). According to a legend recounted in the Old French epic,
La Morte Aimeri de Narbonne
, the ointment used by the Three Marys to anoint the body of Christ after his burial became part of the relics of the Passion that were brought by Longinus into Femenie. The composition of the ointment is not mentioned in Mark, but there is likely confusion with the spices, myrrh and aloes used by Nicodemus at the burial of Jesus (John xix.39). [3358]

16
. See note
¹⁹
to
Cligés
. [3485]

17
. Frequent allusions to Poitevin arms suggest that some of the best early medieval steel armour was produced in the region of Poitou. [3505]

18
. Ovid's tale of the tragic love of Pyramus and Thisbe
(Metamorphoses
4) was well known in twelfth-century France through a mid-century adaptation by an unknown poet. [3803]

19
. The Old French gives ‘Breibançon' who, according to Foerster
(Sämtliche Werke
, p. 396), were ‘hired killers'. Brabant is that region in central Belgium of which Brussels is the principal city. [4219]

20
. It was not unusual in the Middle Ages for males and females to share the same sleeping quarters. In this instance, since both are titular captives of King Bademagu, they are no doubt kept guarded in the same chamber for convenience. [4523]

21
. Chrétien here prepares a pun on the name of the town, which is ‘Noauz' in the Old French. The expression
au noauz
, used later by the queen during the tournament can mean ‘Do your worst!' or ‘Onward for Noauz!' When Guinevere sends the girl to the unknown knight with this message, she knows that Lancelot alone, being the model lover he is, will interpret it ‘Do your worst!' whereas any ordinary knight would understand simply ‘Onward for Noauz!' By changing the name of the town to ‘Wurst,' we have attempted to render some of the flavour of the original. [5369]

22
. On medieval tournaments, see note
¹⁰
to
Erec
[5575ff.].

23
. Two classes of knights were not permitted to take part in the tournament: those who had been defeated previously and those who had sworn to take up the Holy Cross of the Crusade, and who thus could not sully themselves in such a frivolous (and condemnable) sport. These knights joined the ladies in the stands and on the sidelines, explaining the rules and identifying the heroes for them. The use here of personal and familial devices for decoration and identification is remarkable, for this was not widespread until the thirteenth century. [5772]

24
. The MSS readings are corrupt here and the reference obscure. The ‘giant' is possibly Dinabuc, slain by Arthur on Mont-Saint-Michel in Geoffrey of Monmouth's
History of the Kings of Britain
(c
. 1137) and Wace's
Roman de Brut
. [6074]

25
. According to Godefroy de Lagny's statement at the end of the work (11. 7098–7112), Chrétien abandoned his poem at about this point. [6132]

26
. Bucephalus was the horse used by Alexander the Great on most of his campaigns. It had magic powers attributed to it in the twelfth-century Old French
Romance of Alexander
. [6780]

27
. Nothing is known of Godefroy de Lagny other than what he tells us here. [7102]

1
. Old French ‘Carduel' is identified with modern Carlisle in Cumbria, one of Arthur's principal residences in the romances. Gales (‘Wales') might be a case of mistaken geography, but more likely refers to the lands, including Strathclyde, occupied by the ancient Cymri. [7]

2
. Dodinel, nicknamed ‘the Wildman', is included among the Knights of the Round Table in Chrétien's
Erec
(1. 1688) and plays an important role in the
Manessier Continuation
of
The Story of the Grail
and in
Claris et Laris
. He also occurs prominently in the prose
Vulgate Merlin
and
Livre d'Artus
. For Sagremor, see note
¹⁶
to
Cligés
. [54]

3
. Yvain is one of the rare knights of Arthurian romance who might be based on a historic figure. Owein, son of Urien, fought alongside his father against the Angles who invaded Northumbria in the sixth century. He won such glory that he became a figure of Welsh folklore, appearing in two tales of the
Mabinogion
, ‘The Dream of Rhonabwy' and ‘The Lady of the Fountain'.

4
. The forest of Broceliande is mentioned by Wace in
Le Roman de Rou
(11. 1160–74). He describes the fountain, which he calls the fountain of Berenton, in terms remarkably similar to those used here by Chrétien. Broceliande has been identified as the present-day forest of Paimpont, near Rennes (Brittany), and the fountain of Berenton is still known by that name. Chrétien, however, seems to place Broceliande in Britain, since there is never any question of crossing the channel going or coming from it to Carlisle. Like the situating of Carlisle in Wales, this might be better interpreted as poetic licence than mistaken geography, and would have been unlikely to disturb a medieval audience. [189]

5
. Nureddin (Nur-ed-din Mahmud) was Sultan of Syria from 1146 until his death in May 1173, when he was succeeded by Saladin. Two MSS, in fact, give Saladin at this rhyme. Forré was a legendary Saracen king of Naples in the Old French epics. To ‘avenge Forré' is to brag about doing something impressive and never carry it through. [596–7]

6
. The typical medieval portcullis was a timbered grille of oak, plated and shod with steel, that moved up and down in stone grooves in the doorway. [923]

7
. The allusion to fur powdered with chalk is a realistic detail to indicate that the fur is brand-new, since chalk was used in the preparation and preservation of furs. [1889]

8
. Of the ten MSS that relate Yvain's marriage to the Lady of the Fountain, only three give her the Christian name, Laudine. The others call her simply ‘the Lady of Landuc'. Though there is thus room for doubt whether Chrétien himself named her, her name is already Laudine in Hartmann von Aue's adaptation of Chrétien's poem,
lwein (c
. 1200), the principal heroine is named in every other of Chrétien's romances, and Foulet (1955) and Uitti (1984) have recently offered a compelling stylistic argument for retaining it. Nothing is known of any ‘lay of Laududez'. [2155–7]

9
. Chrétien puns upon the name
Lunete
, a diminutive of
lune
(‘moon').[2402ff.]

10
. For Morgan, see note
⁸
to
Erec
[2957]

11
. The Argonne forest is situated in northeastern France on the borders of Champagne and Lorraine. [3232]

12
. The Turks (OF
Turs
) are the Saracens who attacked Roland at Roncevaux in the Old French
Song of Roland;
Durendal is the name of his relicencrusted sword. [3240]

13
. An allusion to
The Knight of the Cart
, which Chrétien was apparently
composing simultaneously. There are further allusions at 11. 3932–41 and 11. 4742–7. [3708ff.]

14
. This long episode of the Castle of Dire Adventure is one of the most remarkable passages in Chrétien's romances. It has been widely discussed as an example of social realism, with Chrétien protesting exploitation in the local silk industry; however, one must remember that these exploited labourers are noble captives. The medieval monetary system had 12 pence
(deniers
) to the shilling
(sous
), and 20 shillings to the pound
(livre
). Thus, the women who are given 4 pennies per day for having produced goods worth one pound, are paid a sixtieth of their real earnings. [511iff.]