Ancient Rome: An Introductory History (15 page)

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Cincinnatus' entry into Rome was an example of the Roman
triumph
, a sort of parade for victorious generals and their armies. First came men showing the gold, silver, weapons, and loot captured in the war. They also carried placards bearing drawings or names of the cities and generals that had been captured, indicating the rivers or mountains crossed, and depicting the major battles fought. Then came the white oxen that would be sacrificed to Jupiter, and the hostages and prisoners in chains. The general himself, in a four-horse chariot adorned with gold, ivory, and jewels, then approached with his entourage, which might include his children as well as his lictors, the Senate, and his assistants. He wore the
vestis triumphalis
(clothing of triumph): a
tunica palmata
(a tunic embroidered with palm branches, the symbol of victory) and a
toga picta
(painted toga) of purple or gold. He wore a crown of laurel, either for purposes of purification or for protection from evil spirits, while a slave standing behind him held a golden crown over his head. The general's face was painted red. In his left hand he held a golden scepter, and in the other a staff of laurel. For a day he was allowed to look like Jupiter. Lest the general become too puffed up with pride by being compared to Jupiter, the slave holding the golden crown above his head constantly whispered in his ear, ''Remember: you are only mortal," while his soldiers, who came next in the procession, sang dirty songs to embarrass him. To further ward off evil, the general wore a
bulla
(amulet) and an iron ring. The triumph would end up at the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, because the triumph was originally a religious procession, probably to honor Jupiter for giving the Romans the victory. During their triumphs, Julius Caesar and Emperor Claudius climbed the steps of the temple on their knees, probably to further humble themselves.

There was also a lesser type of triumph, called an
ovatio
. The general in the
ovatio
entered on horseback or on foot, wore a toga with a purple border and a crown of myrtle, and carried no scepter. This was a much less spectacular event, and something of a consolation prize for those whose victories were not great enough to warrant a triumph.

After his triumph, just fifteen days after he had assumed the position of dictator, Cincinnatus resigned his position of almost

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unlimited power, which he could have held for six months. Having done his job, he returned to his plow.

The Defeat of Veii

During the eighth, seventh, and sixth centuries
B.C.
the Etruscans dominated central Italy, ruling Rome through the Etruscan kings and extending their power into Latium. At the same time the Romans expelled their kings, the Latins too drove the Etruscans out of Latium. Although weakened by internal dissension, the Etruscans were by no means finished as a power. About 405
B.C.
the Romans dedicated themselves to the conquest of Veii, the powerful and wealthy Etruscan city less than 15 kilometers north of Rome. The Roman soldiers besieging Veii swore not to return to Rome until they had conquered. Veii was about the same size as Rome, and its position on a mountain, surrounded on three sides by a moat, made it extremely difficult to besiege; the Veientes were also helped by some members of the Etruscan alliance, one of which was the powerful Etruscan city Tarquinii.

In Roman legend the siege of Veii lasted ten years (precisely as long as the Greeks' siege of Troy). The siege of Veii was the most ambitious conquest the Romans had yet undertaken, and the most difficult struggle the city had ever faced. As the siege dragged on, the Romans appointed M. Furius Camillus dictator. In 396, led by Camillus, the Romans took Veil by tunneling into the city. The acquisition of Veii's land doubled the size of Rome. In addition, the Roman soldiers carried off a great deal of loot. When seeing the huge amount of treasure, which was greater than anybody had hoped or dreamed, Camillus prayed that the gods, if jealous of Rome's good fortune, might allow him to somehow appease their jealousy with the smallest suffering of himself or the city. While saying the prayer, Camillus turned around and tripped, a terrible omen.

The siege of Veii affords an excellent example of what the Romans called
evocatio
. When the Romans took over a city, they feared the wrath of the gods dwelling there, so they asked those gods to leave that city and come to Rome. Once they had brought the god to Rome, they worshipped him along with the usual

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Roman gods. Accordingly, Camillus as he marched on Veii addressed the gods of Rome and Veii: "Led by you and your divine power, Pythian Apollo, I am proceeding to destroy the city Veii, and I vow to you one-tenth of the spoils. Queen Juno, you who now live in Veii, I beseech you to accompany us, once we have won this war, into our city and to let it be your city too in the future, where a temple worthy of your majesty will receive you" (Livy V.21.2-4).

Young soldiers were specially chosen to remove the statue of Juno and the temple's treasures; before they entered the temple they bathed and dressed in white. One soldier, in awe of the temple and the goddess, asked Juno whether or not she wanted to go to Rome; his companions swore that the statue nodded its head in reply.

Camillus and Roman Honor

While besieging Veii, the Romans were attacked by Veii's allies, the Etruscan city Falerii. In revenge, the Romans then attacked Falerii. During the siege of their city, the Falerians learned that one trusted and respected member of their society was not above abusing his position for profit; they also learned about Roman honor and morals.

It was the custom in Falerii that teachers taught as well as supervised their pupils, and many boys were entrusted to the care of one man. . . . The teacher who excelled in knowledge taught the children of the leading citizens. During peacetime one teacher had established the routine of leading the boys out before the city for play and exercise; during the war, that routine was in no way interrupted. Taking the boys from the city gates for sometimes shorter and sometimes longer distances, with the play and talk varied, one day when he could he led the boys farther than usual, straight through the enemy outposts and from there into the Romans' camp, directly into the headquarters of Camillus, the general.


There he added to his despicable deed words even more loathsome, that he had handed the city Falerii into the Romans' hands, since he had given the Romans power over the sons of Falerii's chief citizens. When

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Camillus heard this, he said, "Wicked man, you have brought your despicable offer to a people and general who are not like you. There is no alliance between Rome and Falerii, as happens by agreement between humans. But there are laws of war just as there are laws of peace, and we have learned to fight wars no less justly than bravely. We have brought our arms not against the age of life which is spared even when cities are captured, but against armed men and against those who, without provocation and wrongdoing from us, attacked our camp during the siege of Veii. With your new crime, as much as it was in your power, you have conquered your countrymen; I, however, will conquer them with Roman skill, courage, work, and weapons."

The teacher was stripped, and his hands were tied behind his back; then Camillus handed him over to the boys to be led back to Falerii, and gave them switches to whip him as they drove the traitor back to the city. When the people in the city saw the boys bringing the teacher back, at first they gathered in great numbers, and then the senate was convened. So great was their change of heart that those who only recently had been so wild with anger and hatred that they would have preferred being destroyed like Veil to having a disgraceful peace like Capena's [which had surrendered to Rome] now unanimously sought peace.


In the marketplace and Senate House, the Falerians talked of nothing but Roman trustworthiness and Camillus' sense of justice. By agreement of all, legates went to Camillus in his camp and, after gaining his permission, they went to the Roman Senate, to surrender Falerii to Rome.

Once they were led into the Senate, they said this: "Gentlemen of the Senate, we have been conquered by you and your general; may no man or god begrudge you that victory. We surrender, seeing that we will live better lives under your rule than under our own. Two healthy examples have come out of this war for the benefit of mankind: You preferred honor in war to an immediate victory. Won over by your trustworthiness, we voluntarily acknowledge your victory." (Livy V.27.1-14)

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