21st Century Grammar Handbook (2 page)

4.
Its clear whats gotta be done.
This information
sentence
would not be considered appropriate in most
written communications except perhaps a personal letter. The most glaring error is “gotta,” which would be just as wrong if it were “got to.” Formal,
standard English
requires “must,” “should,” “has,” or a similar construction: “… what should be done.”

Two
apostrophes
are missing from
contractions:
“It’s” (compare the
possessive
pronoun “its”) and “what’s.” And in more formal
style
contractions might not be appropriate, although this
rule
is less rigid than it used to be. Here is a possible
revision
that would meet most standards: “It’s clear what has to be done.” Change “It’s” to “It is” to satisfy the most rigorous
audience.
See also
possessive
and
pronoun.

5.
Speaking of grammar, errors are to common to worry about.
The first verbal phrase (“Speaking of grammar”) is a
dangling modifier
or
misplaced modifier
that has no clear
antecedent,
or referent. “Errors” were not speaking of grammar, nor was anything or anyone else in the
sentence.
Moreover, the form of the phrase does not show whether it is an adjectival usage (modifying a
noun)
or an adverbial construction (modifying a
verb;
surely the phrase does not refer to
“are”).
Most readers will actually “understand” this sentence on a first and rapid reading, but any closer attention will lead to puzzlement, the need to reread and try to figure out what is meant, and a loss of
clarity
and
efficiency
of communication. See also
adjective.

You can avoid
bland writing
or weak writing by starting sentences with phrases instead of noun
subjects.
But you need to be careful that the phrases are constructed properly and refer clearly to something or someone appearing soon after in the sentence.

The first “to” is also wrong; instead of the
preposition
“to,” its
homonym,
the
adverb
“too,” is required here.

The
preposition “about”
at the end of the sentence is not dangling since it is an integral part of the verb. Dropping it would make the sentence unintelligible, while
revising
to add an
object
or inserting a pronoun object would make the sentence very stilted.

The whole sentence could be rewritten as follows: “When one is talking about grammar, errors are too common to worry about.” If the last preposition troubles you because it seems to be dangling, try: “When the subject is grammar, errors are too common to cause worry.” See
revision
and
editing.

6.
In the spring the birds begin to sing and the bees begin to sting.
A
comma
should be inserted after
“sing”
because the two
clauses
in this sentence are independent. Modern
usage
permits the dropping of such commas between short independent clauses, particularly in less formal or journalistic writing. If you are striving for a racy effect, need to save space by cutting down on
punctuation,
or want to defy authority a bit, the comma could be left out, but not in most classroom work or more formal writing.

7.
Joans book is called, “How To Write Better.”
“Joan’s” is a
possessive
that requires an
apostrophe
before the “S” (as do all singular
nouns
in the possessive
case
no matter how they are spelled: “Gus’s book”). But the
comma
before the
quotation marks
isn’t necessary because what follows is not someone’s speech but a
title
of a work. Book titles are usually underlined or italicized rather than being set off in quotes. Within
capitalized
titles of works,
conjunctions, prepositions,
and the “to” of
infinitives
are
not capitalized. The rules of capitalization are complex and flexible, depending on the purposes of your writing and your
audience.
See also
possessive
and
italics.

8.
I read the book, that is about grammar, and writing.
The choice of the definite article
“the”
is probably poor since there are many books about grammar and writing: “a book” would likely be better.
That
is a
relative pronoun
used to introduce a
restrictive phrase
or
restrictive clause; nonrestrictive phrases, nonrestrictive clauses,
or
appositives
are not set off by
commas
. “Which” could be used here with a comma to make a nonrestrictive clause, but the sentence then wouldn’t make sense (try it). The best revision might be: “I read a book about grammar and writing.” This is less wordy and solves the pronoun problem by eliminating the pronoun altogether.

The final comma (after “grammar”) is not needed since there are only two words in this
series;
standard English requires a comma before
“and”
only in series of more than two elements: “… a book that is about grammar, usage, and writing.” See also
phrase, clause, a,
and
standard English.

9.
There is great value to an university education but it is weak.
The indefinitive article
“an”
is wrong because “university” begins with a consonant sound. Only words that begin with vowel sounds should take “an” (“an owl,”
“a
one-time offer,” “a university,” “an unclean house”).

There should be a
comma
between the two independent
clauses
that are joined by the
conjunction “but.”
However, something must be done about
“it.”
There is no clear
antecedent,
or referent, for this
pronoun,
and therefore, what is weak is completely unclear. Since “university” is a
noun
serving as an
adjective
in this sentence, and since the sentence begins with the weak opening “There is,” which presents no clear
subject,
the reader could assume “it” has something to do with “value,” “university,” or “education” (see
expletive).
Whatever assumption a reader makes, time will be lost trying to figure out what is meant, and
clarity
will never be achieved.

It is not wrong to begin sentences with vague opening
phrases
like “It is” or “There is.” But overreliance on them can lead to boring, unclear statements, particularly if later pronouns in such sentences are not given clear antecedents.
Revision
of this sample sentence requires going back to square one and rethinking what it is you have to say before setting pen to paper.

10.
The cases of sexual harassment which is common bothers me.
Here a
nonrestrictive clause,
properly introduced by “which,” needs to be set off by
commas,
and the main
verb
(“bothers”) should be
plural
to agree with the
subject
(“cases”): “The cases of sexual harassment, which is common, bother me.” The sentence is now grammatically correct, but
editing
or rewriting would help eliminate the
awkwardness
of a plural subject separated from its verb by a singular
clause:
“I am bothered by the cases of sexual harassment, which is common.” Although this change creates a
passive
construction, the sentence is clearer. See also
that
and
agreement.

11.
Predominant forms of transgressive behavior, deviance that is selfgenerated, and retrogressive emotions.
Although there is a
linking verb
(“is”) in a restrictive dependent
clause
in this set of words, the example is not a
sentence
since it lacks a main
verb.
The
compound word
“self-generated” should also be hyphenated. See
is, hyphen, restrictive clause, and fragment.

Another problem here is the heavy
vocabulary,
made up mainly of words derived from
Latin.
In some professional or technical contexts, such display of learning might be acceptable or even expected. But in most common communication, it is better to use fewer long, abstract words. Of course, there are some concepts so complex (like scientific ideas) that they defy expression in ordinary words. But if you are not a scholar or scientist or if it is possible your statements will not be read exclusively by specialists able to penetrate
jargon,
write as clearly and simply as you can. And even if you are an expert, you might try to find language the uninitiated can understand and enjoy. See
scientific language
and
clarity.

12.
Examples are given so that help can be provided where it is needed.
There are no grammatical errors in this
sentence.
However, it does contain three
passive
verbal constructions. Not only do passives tend to weaken writing
style
by removing actors or
agents
from sentences, but they also add words and make it somewhat harder to find referents and
antecedents.
A possible
revision:
“We give examples to provide help where you need help.” This sentence could be criticized for addressing an assumed reader (“you”), but it is more direct, shorter, and clearer than the sample.

If you review all the italicized words, terms, and ideas in the answers, you will not become an expert in grammar or stop making mistakes in writing or speaking. But you will gain some insight into the possible deficiencies in your
Statements and some ways to identify them quickly so that you can seek further help in the
Handbook.
That help—plus care, attention, and constant rethinking and revision—will go a long way toward making you a more accurate, better writer.

A, an.
“A” and “an” indicate single, uncertain objects and are, therefore, called “indefinite
articles.”
Like most words that say something about
objects
(modify them in the broadest sense), they usually come directly before the word they describe
(noun
or
adjective):
“a dog,” “an orange cloud.”

When the word these articles comes before begins with a consonant sound, use “a” to describe or modify it; when the word begins with a yowel sound, choose “an.” If the word that follows begins with a
number
or an
abbreviation
or an acronym, then choose “a” or “an,” depending on the way the word is said out loud: if it sounds as though it began with a vowel, choose “an” if it sounds like a consonant, choose “a.” For example, these are correct choices: “a 100-megabyte disk,” “an EKG reading,” “an mflop.”

The
rule
of choosing “a” or “an” according to the
spelling
or pronunciation of the word it comes before can lead to some confusion when different groups of people write or say a word differently. For instance, some British speakers do not pronounce the “h” of words like “humble,” leading them to say or write “an humble home.” Most American speakers and writers do not drop “h” and do not use “an” before words that begin with “h” in most cases. However, this Britishism does continue to appear in the most formal English, especially in the case of “historical.” Some American writers prefer “an historical study” to avoid possible confusion
with “ahistorical study.” If the group to which you are addressing your words prefers this construction, it is acceptable to break the more generally followed rule stated above. See also
modifier
and
British English.

Abbreviation, acronym.
If possible, avoid abbreviations or acronyms—letters used to stand for words or clusters of words—in your writing if you are unsure your readers will understand them. To ensure
clarity,
spell out any acronym or abbreviation the first time you use it and show the way you will shorten the word or
phrase
in
parentheses
: “We will examine how the central processing unit (CPU) works.” If there are many such instances in your writing, you might include a
list
of abbreviated terms or the acronyms used so that readers can check similar or less frequently used terms.

Many of these clusters have become so common they don’t need explanation: company names like “IBM,” commonly used words and abbreviations, such as “etc.,” and many symbols or signs like “$,” “%,” and “&,” can sometimes be used without further clarification. But when it is possible those who read or hear you won’t know what you mean, help them with a fuller treatment of the abbreviation or acronyms you use.

Another group of commonly recognized shortened versions of words includes
numbers
and
symbols
: “There are 400 snakes in that pit.”

Efficiency
or length considerations are common reasons for using abbreviations or acronyms. Technical writing is often full of long names for things that must be repeated to
ensure accuracy and clarity. Shortening these terms can save a great deal of space. A computer manual, for example, that repeats “central processing unit” a few thousand times will be much longer than one that uses “CPU.” Some also argue that it is more efficient or quicker to read abbreviations and acronyms. That is so if you have first made sure your
audience
knows what you are shortening, and how.

If you are writing or speaking to people who are used to or even demand the use of acronyms, then follow the local
rules
and use them to save space or show you are part of the group.

Finally, remember that acronyms and abbreviations are treated as sound clusters when deciding whether to put “a” or “an” before them—use “an” if the shortened form usually is pronounced with a vowel sound (“an LED readout”) but “a” if the pronunciation begins with a consonant sound (“a 100° day”) no matter how the acronyms, abbreviations, numbers, or symbols are spelled.