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Authors: Ray Kurzweil
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The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence (51 page)
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MOSH In 2099, an acronym for Mostly Original Substrate Humans. In the last half of the twenty-first century, a human being still using native carbon-based neurons and unenhanced by neural implants is referred to as a MOSH. In 2099, Molly refers to the author as being a MOSH.
MOSH art
In 2099, art (that is usually created by enhanced humans) that a MOSH is theoretically capable of appreciating, although MOSH art is not always shared with a MOSH.
In 2099, art (that is usually created by enhanced humans) that a MOSH is theoretically capable of appreciating, although MOSH art is not always shared with a MOSH.
MOSH music In 2099, MOSH art in the form of music.
Moshism In 2099, an archaic term that is rooted in the MOSH way of life, before the advent of enhanced humans through neural implants and the porting of human brains to new computational substrates. An example of a Moshism: the word papers to refer to knowledge structures representing a body of intellectual work.
MRI
See Magnetic resonance imaging.
See Magnetic resonance imaging.
MYCIN A successful expert system, developed at Stanford University in the mid- 1970s, designed to aid medical practitioners in prescribing an appropriate antibiotic by determining the exact identity of a blood infection.
Nanobot A nanorobot (robot built using nanotechnology). A self-replicating nanobot requires mobility, intelligence, and the ability to manipulate its environment. It also needs to know when to stop its own replication. In 2029, nanobots will circulate through the bloodstream of the human body to diagnose illnesses.
Nanobot swarm In the last half of the twenty-first century, a swarm comprised of trillions of nanobots. The nanobot swarms can rapidly take on any form. A nanobot swarm can project the visual images, sounds, and pressure contours of any set of objects, including people. The swarms of nanobots can also combine their computational abilities to emulate the intelligence of people and other intelligent entities and processes. A nanobot swarm effectively brings the ability to create virtual environments into the real environment.
Nanoengineering The design and manufacturing of products and other objects based on the manipulation of atoms and molecules; building machines atom by atom. “Nano” refers to a billionth of a meter, which is the width of five carbon atoms. See Picoengineering; Femtoengineering.
Nanopathogen A self-replicating nanobot that replicates excessively, possibly without limit, causing destruction to both organic and inorganic matter.
Nanopatrol In 2029, a nanobot in the bloodstream that checks the body for biological pathogens and other disease processes.
Nanotechnology
A body of technology in which products and other objects are created through the manipulation of atoms and molecules. “Nano” refers to a billionth of a meter, which is the width of five carbon atoms.
A body of technology in which products and other objects are created through the manipulation of atoms and molecules. “Nano” refers to a billionth of a meter, which is the width of five carbon atoms.
Nanotubes Elongated carbon molecules that resemble long tubes and are formed of the same pentagonal patterns of carbon atoms as buckyballs. Nanotubes can perform the electronic functions of silicon-based components. Nanotubes are extremely small, thereby providing very high densities of computation. Nanotubes are a likely technology to continue to provide the exponential growth of computing when Moore’s Law on integrated circuits dies by the year 2020. Nanotubes are also extremely strong and heat resistant, thereby permitting the creation of three-dimensional circuits.
Natural language Language as ordinarily spoken or written by humans using a human language such as English (as contrasted with the rigid syntax of a computer language). Natural language is governed by rules and conventions sufficiently complex and subtle for there to be frequent ambiguity in syntax and meaning.
Neanderthal
See Homo sapiens neanderthal
(neanderthalensis).
See Homo sapiens neanderthal
(neanderthalensis).
Neural computer A computer with hardware optimized for using the neural network paradigm. A neural computer is designed to simulate a massive number of models of human neurons.
Neural connection calculation
In a neural network, a term that refers to the primary calculation of multiplying the “strength” of a neural connection by the input to that connection (which is either the output of another neuron or an initial input to the system) and then adding this product to the accumulated sum of such products from other connections to this neuron. This operation is highly repetitive, so neural computers are optimized for performing it.
In a neural network, a term that refers to the primary calculation of multiplying the “strength” of a neural connection by the input to that connection (which is either the output of another neuron or an initial input to the system) and then adding this product to the accumulated sum of such products from other connections to this neuron. This operation is highly repetitive, so neural computers are optimized for performing it.
Neural implant A brain implant that enhances one’s sensory ability, memory, or intelligence. Neural implants will become ubiquitous in the twenty-first century.
Neural network A computer simulation of human neurons. A system (implemented in software or hardware) that is intended to emulate the computing structure of neurons in the human brain.
Neuron Information-processing cell of the central nervous system. There are an estimated 100 billion neurons in the human brain.
Noise A random sequence of data. Because the sequence is random and without meaning, noise carries no information. Contrasted with information.
Objective experience The experience of an entity as observed by another entity, or measurement apparatus.
OCR See Optical character recognition.
Operating system A software program that manages and provides a variety of services to application programs, including user interface facilities and management of input-output and memory devices.
Optical character recognition (OCR) A process in which a machine scans, recognizes, and encodes printed (and possibly handwritten) characters into digital form.
Optical computer A computer that processes information encoded in patterns of light beams; different from today’s conventional computers, in which information is represented in electronic circuitry or encoded on magnetic surfaces. Each stream of photons can represent an independent sequence of data, thereby providing extremely massive parallel computation.
Optical imaging A brain-imaging technique similar to MRI but potentially providing higher resolution imaging. Optical imaging is based on the interaction between electrical activity in the neurons and blood circulation in the capillaries feeding the neurons.
Order Information that fits a purpose. The measure of order is the measure of how well the information fits the purpose. In the evolution of life-forms, the purpose is to survive. In an evolutionary algorithm (a computer program that simulates evolution to solve a problem), the purpose is to solve the problem. Having more information, or more complexity, does not necessarily result in a better fit. A superior solution for a purpose—greater order—may require either more or less information, and either more or less complexity. Evolution has shown, however, that the general trend toward greater order does generally result in greater complexity.
Paradigm A pattern, model, or general approach to solving a problem.
Parallel processing Refers to computers that use multiple processors operating simultaneously as opposed to a single processing unit. (Compare with Serial computer.)
Pattern recognition Recognition of patterns with the goal of identifying, classifying, or categorizing complex inputs. Examples of inputs include images such as printed characters and faces, and sounds such as spoken language.
Perceptron In the late 1960s and 1970s, a machine constructed from mathematical models of human neurons. Early Perceptrons were modestly successful in such pattern-recognition tasks as identifying printed letters and speech sounds. The Perceptron was a forerunner of contemporary neural nets.
Personal computer A generic term for a single-user computer using a microprocessor, and including the computing hardware and software needed for an individual to work autonomously.
PGP
See Pretty Good Privacy.
See Pretty Good Privacy.
Picoengineering
Technology on the picometer (one trillionth of a meter) scale. Picoengineering will involve engineering at the level of subatomic particles.
Technology on the picometer (one trillionth of a meter) scale. Picoengineering will involve engineering at the level of subatomic particles.
Picture portal In 2009, a visual display for viewing people and other real-time images. In later years, the portals project three-dimensional, real-time scenes. Molly’s son, Jeremy, uses a picture portal to view the Stanford University campus.
Pixel An abbreviation for picture element. The smallest element on a computer screen that holds information to represent a picture. Pixels contain data giving brightness and possibly color at particular points in the picture.
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) A system of encryption (designed by Phil Zimmerman) distributed on the Internet and widely used. PGP uses a public key that can be freely disseminated and used by anyone to encode a message and a private key that is kept only by the intended recipient of the encoded messages. The private key is used by the recipient to decode messages encrypted using the public key Converting the public key into a private key requires factoring large numbers. If the number of bits in the public key is large enough, then the factors cannot be computed in a reasonable amount of time using conventional computation (and thus the encoded information remains secure). Quantum computing (with a sufficient number of qu-bits) would destroy this type of encryption.
Price-performance
A measure of the performance of a product per unit cost.
A measure of the performance of a product per unit cost.
Program A set of computer instructions that enables a computer to perform a specific task. Programs are usually written in a high-level language such as “C” or “FORTRAN” that can be understood by human programmers and then translated into machine language using a special program called a compiler. Machine language is a special set of codes that directly controls a computer.
Punch card
A rectangular card that typically records up to eighty characters of data in a binary coded format as a pattern of holes punched in it.
A rectangular card that typically records up to eighty characters of data in a binary coded format as a pattern of holes punched in it.
Quantum computing A revolutionary method of computing, based on quantum physics, that uses the ability of particles such as electrons to exist in more than one state at the same time. See Qu-bit.
Quantum decoherence A process in which the ambiguous quantum state of a particle (such as the nuclear spin of an electron representing a qu-bit in a quantum computer) is resolved into an unambiguous state as the result of direct or indirect observation by a conscious observer.
Quantum encryption A possible form of encryption using streams of quantum entangled particles such as photons. See Quantum entanglement.
Quantum entanglement A relationship between two physically separated particles under special circumstances. Two photons may be “quantum entangled” if produced by the same particle interaction and emerging in opposite directions. The two photons remain quantum entangled with each other even when separated by very large distances (even when light-years apart). In such a circumstance, the two quantum entangled photons, if each forced to make a decision to choose among two equally probable pathways, will make the identical decision and will do so at the same instant in time. Since there is no possible communication link between two quantum entangled photons, classical physics would predict that their decisions would be independent. But two quantum entangled photons make the same decision and do so at the same instant in time. Experiments have demonstrated that even if there were an unknown communication path between them, there is not enough time for a message to travel from one photon to the other at the speed of light.
Quantum mechanics
A theory that describes the interactions of subatomic particles, combining several basic discoveries. These include Max Planck’s 1900 observation that energy is absorbed or radiated in discrete quantities, called quanta. Also Werner
A theory that describes the interactions of subatomic particles, combining several basic discoveries. These include Max Planck’s 1900 observation that energy is absorbed or radiated in discrete quantities, called quanta. Also Werner
Heisenberg’s 1927 uncertainty principle stating that we cannot know both the exact position and momentum of an electron or other particle at the same time. Interpretations of quantum theory imply that photons simultaneously take all possible paths (e.g., when bouncing off a mirror). Some paths cancel each other out. Remaining ambiguity in the path actually taken is resolved based on the conscious observation of an observer.
Qu-bit A “quantum bit,” used in quantum computing, that is both zero and one at the same time, until quantum decoherence (direct or indirect observation by a conscious observer) causes each quantum bit to disambiguate into a state of zero or one. One qu-bit stores two possible numbers (zero and one) at the same time. N qu-bits stores 2
N
possible numbers at the same time. Thus an N qu-bit quantum computer would try 2
N
possible solutions to a problem simultaneously, which gives the quantum computer its enormous potential power.
N
possible numbers at the same time. Thus an N qu-bit quantum computer would try 2
N
possible solutions to a problem simultaneously, which gives the quantum computer its enormous potential power.
RAM See Random Access Memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM) Memory that can be both read and written with random access of memory locations. Random access means that locations can be accessed in any order and do not need to be accessed sequentially. RAM can be used as the working memory of a computer into which applications and programs can be loaded and run.
Ray Kurzweil’s Cybernetic Poet A computer program designed by Ray Kurzweil that uses a recursive approach to create poetry. The Cybernetic Poet analyzes word sequence patterns of poems it has “read” using markov models (a mathematical cousin of neural nets) and creates new poetry based on these patterns.
Read-Only Memory (ROM) A form of computer storage that can be read from but not written to or deleted (e.g., CD-ROM).
Reading machine A machine that scans text and reads it aloud. Initially developed for those who are visually impaired, reading machines are currently used by anyone who cannot read at their intellectual level, including reading disabled (e.g., dyslexic) persons and children first learning to read.
BOOK: The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence
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